...Transistors John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain, were all scientists at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey. They were researching the behavior of germanium crystals as semi-conductors in an attempt to replace vacuum tubes as mechanical relays in telecommunications. The vacuum tube, used to amplify music and voice, made long-distance calling practical, but the tubes consumed power, created heat and burned out rapidly, requiring high maintenance. This smaller more reliable transistor replaced the older vacuum tube. (Bellis) Transistors are semi-conductor devices that are used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power. Transistors are composed of a semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. Transistors are manufactured in different designs but all have at least the three leads, the base which is responsible for activating the transistor, a collector which is applied to the positive lead, and an emitter which is the negative lead. If amperage, voltage or current is applied to one pair of the transistors terminals it changes the current through the other terminal. (Ryan) The bipolar transistor leads are connected to their own section of doped semi-conductors. Doping involves the addition of a small percentage of foreign atoms in the regular crystal lattice of silicon or germanium producing sometimes large changes in their electrical properties. This is how we produce...
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...The Invention and Development of the Transistor The invention of the transistor was one of the turning points in the development of personal computers. Of the many people responsible for the inception and evolution of the transistor, three men were integral in it’s birth and growth into integrated circuits. These men, William Shockley, Robert Dennard, and Jack Kilby, were some of the founders of the personal computing and electronics industry. Their work within their respective companies involving the transistor has led to the prevalence of the computing devices that exist today. William Shockley was one of the first true inventors of the transistor. He worked for Bell Labs in the 30’s and 40’s. Bell at the time was trying to improve its telephone system and network to allow for a better and cheaper way to operate. While working on what was only theoretical semiconductor amplification at the time, Shockley invented the point-contact transistor and the bipolar junction transistor (Riordan 2012). This revolutionary breakthrough allowed for all other progress with the transistor to be made, and soon the potential for the transistor would be taken into the world of personal computing. Robert Dennard worked for IBM in the late 50’s and early 60’s. In compliance with IBM’s vision he set out to create a better way for a computer to access memory. Thusly, Dennard’s work led him to the creation of the one-transistor cell for dynamic random access memory (DRAM) (Hayes...
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...Unit 1: Assignment 1: Intel Processor Transistor Count Kellie L NT1110 Intel Processor Transistor Count After researching through several websites and reading Chapter 1 about the “Intel Processor Transistor Count”, I was able to get a much better understanding of how “Moore’s Law” actually works. The graph table I found and made my on paper drawing of (gatotkacatulanglunak.wordpress.com) presents the processor model, the year that each model was created from 1971-2011, and the transistor count from 2,300-2,600,000,000. During late 2008- early 2009 the 65-nanometer Tukwila Itanium Processor was released. This processor could run at up to 2GHz, with “dual-integrated” memory controllers and use Intel’s “quick path” interconnect instead of a “front-side bus”. This processor had 2 billion transistors on one chip (Rob Shiveley, spokesman for Intel). Based on what I have learned from my reading assignment and the graph table I have found online showing “Moore’s Law” the growth of processor transistor counts from 1971- 2011 doubling every two years, sometime around the years 2019-2020 there will be a processor with 100 billion transistors on one chip. I also predict that not until the year 2026 will we have processors with up to 1 trillion transistors on one chip. Throughout the years graphed, the growth from 1971- now seems pretty reasonable, mainly because the growth is steadily growing. However, with the advanced technology we have today...
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...Since the 1960’s CPU transistor sizes have been steadily shrinking over time. Since the 1960’s the number of transistors on a Central Processing Unit have steadily increased from 2,300 on Intel’s first microprocessor the 4004, to more than 5 billion on Intel’s 62-Core Xeon Phi, released in 2012. Moore’s Law According to Moore’s Law, the number of transistors on an integrated circuit doubles every 18-24 months. Although Moore’s Law isn’t a law of the physical sciences, it is an observation by Gordon Moore made in the 1960’s. Transistor count is the most used method of measure for the complexity of integrated circuits. Intel’s Quad-Core Itanium Tukwila released in 2010 had 2 billion transistors on it’s die. As impressive as this is, Moore’s Law cannot continue indefinitely without modification. The reason for this is the laws of physics, that as the size of transistors shrinks and the number of transistors on a CPU die increases, transistors will eventually reach the limits of atomic sizes. At this size, silicon becomes unsuitable as a material to build integrated circuits out of, due to quantum tunneling and other factors. CPU die sizes will either have to get larger to fit more transistors (abet smaller transistors) and or increase the number of layers for each die. Moore’s Law is a model of exponential growth, and as such exponential growth is the fastest model of growth. Whether 100 billion or even 1 trillion transistors may fit on a single chip in the future, will...
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...controllable valve that allows a small signal to control a much larger signal does this, and could be related to a controllable valve used in the control of water flow. This was once done by a device known as vacuum tube but was later brought down to a much lower production scale for a variety of industrial, economical and business related reasons. Bell Laboratories, the research arm of telecommunications company American Telephone and Telegraph’s (AT&T) director Mervin Kelly put together the first team of researchers and scientists placed on the task of research and development of a solid state-semiconductor later called a transistor that would supersede vacuum tubes and provide numerous advantages. The success of this development would prove to change the computing, electronics and telecommunications systems altogether. Up until the invention of the transistor a vacuum tube was used in the control, amplification and generation of electrical signals. Vacuum tubes are tubes usually made from glass and designed in an airtight manner as to keep the flow of “cathode rays” from external disturbance as they pass from each terminal and laid the foundation for numerous technical innovations, such as the light bulb discovered by Thomas Edison (fig. 1). Joseph John Thomson further made a vacuum tube and placed a third terminal to attain a grasp of knowledge on the nature, composition and behavior this would play on cathode rays (for although they were being used at the time there was little...
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...BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR Introduction: The bipolar junction transistor was invented in the United States by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley in 1949. A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a type of transistor (device) that has three terminals connected to three doped semiconductor regions. The emitter region, the base region and the collector region. There are two types of bipolar junction transistor: NPN transistor and PNP transistor. In an NPN type, a thin and lightly doped P-type material is sandwiched between two thicker N-type materials; while in a PNP type, a thin and lightly doped N-type material is sandwiched between two thicker P-type materials. BJTs can also be used as amplifiers, switches, or in oscillators. (BJTs) can be characterized by the single relationship between the current going through and the voltage across the two leads. And it can be considered as a two-port network with an input-port and an output-port, each port formed by two of the three terminals, and characterized by the relationships of both input and output currents and voltages. There are three possible configurations for the two-port network formed by a transistor, depending on which of the three terminals is used as common terminal: common emitter (CE), common base (CB), and common collector (CC). Common-base configuration is a transistor operation mode that base is common on both collector and emitter of the BJT. Common-base configuration diagram Common-collector...
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...Abstract This report illustrates through the figures and results the procedures taken in this laboratory experiment to implement different Field Effect Transistor (FET) amplifier circuits. Firstly, is the procedure part which includes the design and results of whole task of the experiments and analyses the results of the task. the design and results part includes the tables, figures, equations and some comments about the results and it is divided into two tasks. The analyses the results part of the report investigate some errors of it. After that, the report is concluded through discussing the main achievements and the recommendations if found. The measured and simulated results are presented in this report along with a discussion of how the circuit parameters were determined. 1. Procedure In this laboratory session, we dealt with another type of transistors known as the Field Effect Transistors (FET). Indeed, these transistors employ one type of charges, i.e. either electrons or holes depending on the channel polarity and hence the name unipolar devices arise. FETs are voltage controlled devices that have a very high input impedance and low noise level. Task 1: Frequency response of FET amplifier Task 2: Frequency response of Common-Drain FET amplifier: In this task, we dealt with the frequency response of Common-Drain FET amplifier shown in Figure 1 below. A dc voltage of the...
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...A Brief Exploration Of Intel Corporation Processors And Transistor Manufacturing J. Rice ITT Technical Institute The first Intel Corporation processor build with more than 2 billion transistors (2.04 billion) was code-named Tukwila for the generation of Intel's 4-Core Itanium platform / Mission Critical family, using a 65 nm transistor architecture. It was designed primarily for usage with remote access servers (RAS) and machine check architecture recovery (MCA). It was announced in the first quarter of 2008, but wasn’t moved to the consumer market until the first quarter of 2010, pricing between $946.00 and $3838.00, depending on device necessity. The increased of transistor density on processors since the mid 1970’s has been incredible, but dramatically increased in 2011 when Intel Corporation announced production of their 22 nm 3-D Tri-gate transistor technology. It was a partial redesign of traditional 2-D planar (flat) transistor architecture, to a design that supported power transmission on three planes (3-Dimensions), increasing power output and speed, while decreasing power usage by device processes. Transistor size was reduced again in June 2014 when Intel announced a collaboration with Cadence Design Systems, Inc. to create 14 nm transistors, further improving design specs, and maintaining adherence to Moore’s Law. There has been wide speculation that further reduction of transistor architecture could be difficult unless new materials and requisite manufacturing...
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...The first company to produce a processor chip with 2 billion transistors on it was? Yeah- you guessed it, Intel. In 2010, Intel released their quad-core Itanium Tukwila. 1- Is the growth reasonable? I believe it is. Why? Computer technology has improved in leaps and bounds over the years and there is no slowing it down. So long as we find new and exciting ways to use its application then it’ll grow more and more! 2- Is the growth surprisingly fast? No. Considering that every two years the transistors double on a chip I’d have to say it’s moving along at a great pace. Refer to Moore’s law : Moore's law" is the observation that, over the history of computing hardware, the number of transistors in a dense integrated circuit doubles approximately every two years. The observation is named after Gordon E. Moore, co-founder of the Intel Corporation, whose 1965 paper described a doubling every year in the number of components per integrated circuit. In 1975, he revised the forecast doubling time to two years. His prediction has proven to be accurate, in part because the law now is used in the semiconductor industry to guide long-term planning and to set targets for research and development. The capabilities of many digital electronic devices are strongly linked to Moore's law: quality-adjusted microprocessor prices, memory capacity, sensors and even the number and size of pixels in digital cameras. All of these are improving at roughly exponential rates as well. This exponential...
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...Shamas Ulhaq Prof. Husan 4/3/15 Research Paper What do chips do? We see chemistry all over the universe. Mainly we see it in the air or even on the walls of rotten down building of contamination. But it can also be created by us. We can choose what we really want to make to make even antidotes or even medicine. Today I chose a topic of something related to chemistry, something I thought would be kind of neat and interesting to learn. How computer chips in general computer hardware can be closely related to chemistry and how we could use it in real efficiency of time in research. Most of the standard industry use micro chips that are made from Intel. Intel is obviously a huge manufacture in this business and been here since the 1900’s. Most standard chips are made of silicon. Today silicon is everywhere it’s the most basic principle in beach sand as in a natural semiconductor and the most abundant element. First we can say the most advantage of silicon computer chips is because it’s a semiconductor. Which means when the computer runs it acts more like a conductor. Which is why it keeps temperatures low while it runs the PC or laptop from burning your motherboard. This process is called doping. It’s like saying conductors make it hard to control an electric signal. While insulators block electric signals. Semiconductors can do mostly both depending how the manufacturers want it implemented. Stability is one of the other reasons we use silicon in our computers (University...
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...3,000 components per chip. LSI stands for large-scale integration and contain 3,000 to 100,000 components per chip. VLSI stands for very large-scale integration and contain 100,000 to 1,000,000 components per chip. ULSI stands for ultra large-scale integration and contain more than 1 million components per chip. The very first prototype IC was made by Kilby in 1958 and contained only one transistor, several resistors, and a capacitor on a single slab of germanium, and had fine gold “flying wires” to interconnect each component. This design was not pratical to manufacture because each flying wire had to be individually attached. Noyce came up with a better design, in 1959, called a “planar” design. In a planar IC all the components are etched on a silicon base, including a layer of aluminum metal interconnects. The first planar IC was constructed by Fairchild in 1960, consisting of a flip-flop circuit with four transistors and five resistors on a circular die. Today we are in the fourth generation of computers and ICs like the Intel Core i7 quad-core processor have 731 million transistors, as well as many other components. References Computer Structure and Logic, Pearson Certification Team....
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...Unit 7 Research Paper 1: CMOS CMOS is known as Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor. It is a technology used for constructing integrated circuits. The technology is used in microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, and other digital circuits. Frank Wanlass patented CMOS in 1963. CMOS’s typical design is for logic functions using various MOSFETs also known as Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors. The early types of CMOS, which is used to store BIOS memory, used the on-board battery to maintain the power to the CMOS at all times. This prevented your memory settings that were stored on board from being erased after turning your computer off or after loss of power. In modern CMOS systems, the CMOS does not use the on-board battery to maintain and save BIOS settings; instead the battery is only used to provide power to the system clock on board the PC. Memory on-board the CMOS has relatively remained unchanged since it was first patented. Memory for CMOS ranges from 128 bytes to the largest, as of yet, of 512 bytes. The reason for not needing the change in size is that CMOS was and is only designed to hold the absolute basic boot settings needed for any given system. CMOS does indeed still utilize RAM for startup functions on a PC as of today, which has not changed since it was developed. Again, as mentioned above, the CMOS does not utilize the battery located on the motherboard any longer. CMOS has evolved into using EEPROM or Electrically Erasable...
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...research outcomes germane to the performance, attitudes, surroundings and the factors that affects the performace of the ECE sophomore in Basic Electronics. Basic electronics is a course offered by ECE students in their second year in college. According to NCCE (2008), the course is made of passage of electricity in gases and in evacuated tubes, induced electricity and their uses, cathode rays, positive rays and their properties, simple electronic devices, diodes properties, Oscilloscope T.V. tubes, band theory of solids LC, energy level diagrams for conductors, semi-conductors and insulators, doping, types of semiconductors: P-types and N-types, P-N junctions, rectifying property of a p-n junction, forward and reverse biasing, simple transistors and oscillator circuits. Others include n-p-and p-n, basic structures and terminologies and their applications, colour coding, Integrated circuits (ICS). We can consider that one of the factor that affects the student's performance is the difficulty of the subject/course. It is therefore a matter of concern to find out what else may affects the student 's performance. Many researchers has been discussed the different factors that affects the student academic performance in their research. Some of these were from Hansen, Joe B., (2000) ,in his research, the students competence in English, class schedules, class size, English text books, class test results, learning facilities, homework, environment of the class, complexity of the course...
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...Objective: a) To determine the coefficient of discharge for a Venturi meter. b) To investigate the variation of piezometer (or static) head along the length of the Venturi meter. Theory: A venturi is a short tube with a constricted throat used to determine fluid pressure and velocities by measurement of differential pressures generated at the throat as fluid transverses the tube. It was by this method the venturi meter was develop by a scientist known as Clemens Herschel. [pic] Venturi meters can pass 25 – 50% more flow than an orifice meter. In a Venturi meter setup, a short, smaller diameter pipe is substituted into an existing flow line. In the Venturi Tube the fluid flow-rate is measured by reducing the cross sectional flow area in the flow path, generating a pressure difference. After the constricted area, the fluid is passes through a pressure recovery exit section, where up to 80% of the differential pressure generated at the constricted area, is recovered. By Bernoulli’s principle the smaller cross-sectional area results in faster flow and therefore lower pressure. The Venturi meter measures the pressure drop between this constricted section of pipe and the non-constricted section. [pic] The discharge coefficient for the Venturi meter is generally higher than that used for the orifice, usually ranging from .94 to .99. Due to simplicity and dependability, the Venturi tube flow-meter is often used in applications where higher turndown ratios...
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...History and Transistor Count In: Computers and Technology History and Transistor Count 1. Search the Internet using keywords such as “Intel Processor Transistor Count.” 2. Create a table that presents the processor model, year and transistor count for Intel processors from 1971 to the present. 1982 Intel 286 Processor 134K Transistors 1982 Intel 286 Processor 134K Transistors 1978 Intel 8086 Processor 29K Transistors 1978 Intel 8086 Processor 29K Transistors 1974 Intel 8080 Processor 4500 Transistors 1974 Intel 8080 Processor 4500 Transistors 1972 Intel 8008 Processor 3500 Transistors 1972 Intel 8008 Processor 3500 Transistors 1971 Intel 4004 Processor 2300 Transistors 1971 Intel 4004 Processor 2300 Transistors 2003 Intel Pentium M Processor 55 Million Transistors 2003 Intel Pentium M Processor 55 Million Transistors 2001 Intel Xeon Processor 42 Million Transistors 2001 Intel Xeon Processor 42 Million Transistors 2000 Intel Pentium 4 Processor 42 Million Transistors 2000 Intel Pentium 4 Processor 42 Million Transistors 1999 Intel Pentium III Processor 9.5 Million Transistors 1999 Intel Pentium III Processor 9.5 Million Transistors 1998 Intel Celeron Processor 7.5 Million Transistors 1998 Intel Celeron Processor 7.5 Million Transistors 1995 Intel Pentium Pro Processor 5.5 Million Transistors 1995 Intel Pentium Pro Processor 5.5 Million Transistors 1997 Intel Pentium II Processor 7.5 Million...
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