Endnotes
1. Mauer, M. (2006). Race to Incarcerate. 2nd Ed. New York:
The New Press, p. 13.
2. Throughout this manual, we use terms such as “racial groups” and “minorities” interchangeably, with an understanding that many, but not necessarily all, of the dynamics of the criminal justice system apply to various racial and ethnic groups.
3. Leinfelt, F. H. (2006). Racial Influences on the Likelihood of Police Searches and Search Hits: A Longitudinal Analysis from an American Midwestern City. Police Journal,
79(3): 238–257.
4. Office of Justice Systems Analysis (1995). Disparities in
Processing Felony Arrests in New York State: 1990–1992,
Office of Justice Systems Analysis, New York State Division of Criminal Justice Services.
5. Sabol, W. J., and Couture, H. (2008). Prison Inmates at Midyear
2007. Washington, D.C. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
6. U.S. Census Bureau (2007). 2006 American Community
Survey. Available online at: http://www.census.gov/acs/ www/index.html. 7. Sabol and Couture, op. cit.
8. U.S. Census Bureau, op. cit.
9. Bonczar, T. P. (2003). Prevalence of Imprisonment in the
U.S. Population, 1974–2001. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
10. Snyder, H. (2006). Juvenile Arrests 2004. OJJDP Bulletin:
Washington, D.C.: National Disproportionate Minority
Contact Databook.
11. Federal Bureau of Investigation (2007). Crime in the United
States, 2006. Washington, D.C.
12. Spohn, C. (2001). Thirty Years of Sentencing Reform:
The Quest for a Racially Neutral Sentencing Process. In
W. Reed & L. Winterfield (Eds.), Criminal Justice 2000
(Vol. 3, pp. 566). Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Justice.
13. King, R. (2008). Disparity by Geography: The War on Drug in America’s Cities. Washington, D.C.: The Sentencing
Project.
14. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
(2007). Results from the 2006 National Survey on Drug
Use and Health: National Findings. Rockville: Office of Applied
Studies, NSDUH Series H-32, DHHS Publication
No. SMA 07-4293.
15. Federal Bureau of Investigation, op. cit.
16. Sabol, W. J., Couture, H., and Harrison, P. (2007). Prisoners in 2006. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
17. Ibid.
18. Poe-Yamagata, E. and Jones, M. A. (2000). And Justice for
Some: Differential Treatment of Minority Youth in the Justice
System. Washington, D.C.: Building Blocks for Youth.
19. Spohn, C., and Holleran, D. (2000). The Imprisonment
Penalty Paid by Young, Unemployed Black and Hispanic
Male Offenders. Criminology, (38)1: 281–306.
20. See, for example, Delbert Elliot (1994). Serious Violent
Offenders: Onset, Developmental Course, and Termination—
The American Society of Criminology 1993 Presidential
Address. Criminology, 32(1): 1–22.
21. Justice Policy Institute (2002). Reducing Disproportionate
Minority Confinement: The Multnomah County, Oregon Success
Story and its Implications. Washington, D.C.
22. Tonry, M. (1995). Malign Neglect: Race, Crime, and Punishment in America. New York: Oxford University Press.
23. Mumola, C. J., and Karberg, J. C. (2006). Drug Use and
Dependence, State and Federal Prisoners, 2004. Washington,
D.C., Bureau of Justice Statistics.
24. Karberg, J. C., and James, D. (2005). Substance Abuse Dependence,
Abuse, and Treatment of Jail Inmates. Washington,
D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
25. Kovandzic, T. V., Sloan, J. J., and Vieraitis, L. M. (2004).
‘Striking out’ As Crime Reduction Policy: The Impact of
‘Three Strikes’ Laws on Crime Rates in U.S. Cities. Justice
Quarterly, 21(2): 207–239.
26. Glaze, L. E., and Bonczar, T. P. (2007). Probation and Parole in the United States, 2006. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
27. For a detailed discussion of racial impact statements, please see: Mauer, M. (2007). Racial Impact Statements as a
Means of Reducing Unwarranted Sentencing Disparities.
Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, 5(1): 19–46.
28. Greene, J. (2007). Make Police Oversight Independent and Transparent. Criminology and Public Policy, 4(6): 747–
754.
29. Shah, S., Rahman, I., and Khashu, A. (2007). Overcoming
Language Barriers: Solutions for Law Enforcement. New
York: Vera Institute of Justice.
30. Mastrofski, S., Resig, M. D., and McCluskey, J. D. (2002).
Police Disrespect toward the Public: An Encounter-Based
Analysis. Criminology 40(3): 519–522.
31. Engel, R. S., and Calnon, J. M. (2004). Examining the Influence of Drivers’ Characteristics during Traffic Stops with the Police: Results from a National Survey. Justice Quarterly
(21)1: 49–90.
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32. Alpert, G. (2007). Eliminate Race as the Only Reason for
Police-Citizen Encounters. Criminology and Public Policy,
6 (4): 671–678.
33. Meehan, A. J., and Ponder, M. C. (2002). Race and Place:
The Ecology of Racial Profiling African American Motorists.
Justice Quarterly (19)3: 399–430.
34. Reitzel, J. D., Rice, S. K., and Piquero, A. (2004). Lines and
Shadows: Perceptions of Racial Profiling and the Hispanic
Experience. Journal of Criminal Justice (32): 607–616.
35. Patterson, E. B., and Lynch, M. J. (1991). Bias in Formal
Bail Proceedings. In M. J. Lynch and E. B. Patterson (Eds.)
Race and Criminal Justice. New York: Harrow and Heston.
36. Bridges, G., and Steen, S. (1998). Racial Disparities in Official
Assessments of Juvenile Offenders: Attributional Stereotypes as Mediating Mechanisms of Juvenile Offenders.
American Sociological Review, 63: 554–571.
37. Human Rights Watch/Amnesty International (2005). The
Rest of Their Lives: Life without Parole for Child Offenders in the United States. New York.
38. Glaze and Bonczar, op. cit.
39. Ibid.
40. Graham, S., and Lowery, B. (2004). Priming Unconscious
Racial Stereotypes about Adolescent Offenders. Law and
Human Behavior, 28(5): 483–504.
41. Wisconsin Office of Justice Assistance (2008). Commission on Reducing Racial Disparities in the Wisconsin Justice System
Final Report. Madison: Author.
42. Petersilia, J. (1997). Diverting Nonviolent Prisoners to
Intermediate Sanctions: The Impact on California’s Prison
Admissions and Corrections Costs. Correctional Management
Quarterly (1): 8.
43. Mauer, (2006) op. cit.
44. Cullen, F., and Vose, B. A. (2007). Public Support for Early
Intervention: Is Child Saving a ‘Habit of the Heart’? Victims and Offenders 2(2): 109–124.
45. Sabol, W. J., Minton, T. D., and Harrison, P. M. (2007).
Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2006. Washington,
D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
46. U.S. Census Bureau, op. cit.
47. James, D. J. and Glaze, L. E. (2006). Mental Health Problems of Prison and Jail Inmates. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Justice Statistics.
48. Mumula, and Karberg, op. cit.
49. Paradis, C. M., Horn, L., Yang, C. M., and O’Rourke, T.
(1999). Ethnic Differences in Assessment of Treatment of Affective Disorders in a Jail Population. Journal of
Offender Rehabilitation (28)3/4, 23–32.
50. Human Rights Watch (2003). Ill Equipped: U.S. Prisons and Offenders with Mental Illness. Washington, D.C.:
Author.
51. Johnson v. California (03-636) 543 U.S. 499 (2005).
52. Glaze and Bonczar, op. cit.
53. Hughes, T. A., Wilson, J., and Beck, A. (2001). Trends in
State Parole, 1990–2000. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of
Justice Statistics. As of 2000, 20 states had abolished discretionary parole for some or all offenses.
54. Steen, C. and Opsal, T. (2007). Punishment on the Installment plan: Individual-Level Predictors of Parole Revocation in Four States. The Prison Journal (87)3: 344–366.
55. For more information on the NAPSA standards, please visit the following website: http://www.dcjs.virginia.gov/ corrections/pretrial/napsaStandards2004.pdf. 56. Visit the American Bar Association website at: www.abanet. org, and the National District Attorneys Association website at: http://www.ndaa.org/ for more information on standards. 57. Crutchfield, R., Weis, J. G., Engen, R. L., & Gainey, R.
(1995). Racial and Ethnic Disparities in the Prosecution of
Felony Cases in King County: Washington. Olympia, WA:
Administrator for the Courts.
58. ABA Standards for Criminal Justice 6-3.5 (2d ed. 1980 &
Supp. 1986)
59. US v Robertson, 29F. Supp. 2d 567, 570 (D. Minn., 1998)
60. ABA Standards for Criminal Justice 15-2.4 (3d ed. 1996)
61. Ibid., 15-2.8.
62. For example, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court has “the power to prescribe general rules of governing practice, procedure and the supervision of all officers of the judicial branch…” Pennsylvania Constitution Article 5, Section
10.
63. Keough, R. (2000). The Color of Justice. Commonwealth.
Dorchester: Massachusetts District Court.
64. Mauer, (2006) op. cit.
65. Greene, J., Pranis, K., and Ziedenberg, J. (2006) Disparity by Design: How Drug-Free Zone Laws Impact Racial
Disparity—and Fail to Protect Youth. Washington, DC: The
Justice Policy Institute, p. 16.
66. Center for Civic Innovation at the Manhattan Institute
(1999). ‘Broken Windows’ Probation: The Next Step in Fighting
Crime. New York: The Manhattan Institute: Report available online at: www.manhattan-institute.org.
67. Gendreau, P. and Andrews, D. (1994). The Correctional
Program Assessment Inventory. Saint John: University of
New Brunswick.
68. Glaze and Bonczar, op. cit.
66