...Human Biology Antibiotics Resistance Pathogens are organisms, such as a virus, fungus, or bacteria that cause a disease in another organism. Diseases range from the common cold to food poisoning to meningitis. They spread in various ways such as coming into contact with bodily fluids, being in contact with an infected, or ingestion. Bacteria are microorganisms too small to see that exist in any environment in the world. Viruses are microorganisms that can only reproduce through a host cell. After contacting a host cell, the virus will insert genetic material and take over the hosts functions. The infected cell now reproduces as the virus. Viruses can infect all types of living forms, from animals and plants to bacteria to humans. Antibiotics are types of medication that destroy or slow down the growth infections caused by bacteria. Antibiotics specifically target bacteria. Viruses are not structured like bacteria so antibiotics do not work on them. Viruses do not reproduce on their own, and therefore are not considered living. Antibiotics naturally destroy or kill bacteria but in some cases it does not. Antibiotics resistance occurs when strains of bacteria in the human body become resistant to antibiotics due to the improper use and abuse of antibiotics. Causes of abuse are largely due to physicians and patients. Patients often urge their doctors to prescribe them antibiotics when tests do not prove they are infected by a bacterium. The body becomes immune to...
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...Name:________________________________________ Biol 2420 Fa15 Exam 3 Study Guide This guide is not guaranteed to include everything that will be on the exam. Please review your class notes, class slides, homework assignments, and supplement with the class text as needed. I also recommend that you read the article “The Challenge of Antibiotic Resistance” by S. Levy if you need further clarification on antibiotic resistance. 1.) What are the substrates required for each of the following processes? Transcription – DNA Translation – mRNA 2.) What are the enzymes required for each of the following processes? Transcription –RNA polymerase Translation- tRNA and ribosomes 3.) What are the products of each of the following processes? Transcription- mRNA Translation- proteins 4.)a.) Which region on DNA is required to initiate transcription? promoter b.) Which enzyme binds to this region of DNA? RNA polymerase c.) How are the strands of DNA separated for transcription to occur? RNA polymerase d.) How many DNA strands are used as the template for transcription of a single gene? 1 e.) Does RNA exist in double-stranded or single-stranded form? Single-stranded 5. a.) Where does prokaryotic transcription occur? Cytoplasm b.) Where does eukaryotic transcription occur? nucleus 6.)a.) There are three types of RNA molecules. What are they? Messenger, transfer, and ribosomal b.) Which one of the three types of RNA molecules is translated...
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...Protein synthesis is used by mRNA to carry coded information for the sequence of amino acids in proteins. mRNA carries the coded information for the group of proteins from the DNA to the ribosomes. Protein synthesis and how each of the medications inhibits help understand which infections are treated by which medications. The Ciprofaxacin stops the protein synthesis, stops the recoiling, it is a g+ bacteria & allows the antibiotic in to kill bacteria bc of the peptidoglycan layer permeability. This antibiotic has some side effects to the host bc of the cell wall damage, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea & rash are the most common. Erythromycin is a antibiotic that is used for the g- bacteria & binds to the front of Asite of 50S subunit of ribosome of susceptible bacteria & suppresses protein synthesis. This is due to the role of the ribosomes in protein synthesis as they are released from the DNA. The codons allow for a certain amount of protein alteration & when this is near completion, the antibiotic disrupts the molecule before it starts all over again. The effects that this drug will have on the hosts cells are nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hepatotoxicity, seizures & rash at iv site bc of the damage to the cell walls. With the Acyclovir, the protein synthesis is interrupted in a virally infected cell. It blocks the DNA synthesis by thymidine & alters & converts the acyclovir. The acyclovir doesn’t have any effect on a cell wall that isn’t infected by a virus so it won’t affect the...
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...Antibiotics have saved numerous lives since the innovation of penicillin antibiotics in 1928 by Alexander Fleming. Although, now there is a increasing anxiety that overuse of antibiotics can direct to avoidable side effects and the expansion of drugs which are mostly opposing bacteria such as MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus). MRSA has happened to be the most frequent organism responsible for skin, soft tissue and surgical-site infections in the United States and in different parts of the Europe. Different findings had been conducted in a study of the genetic code of MRSA samples; they have added these samples to support to the theory that the introduction of extensive antibiotic use in the 1960s may have generated MRSA disease. Antibiotic word is an originated from Greek for anti, which means against and bios means life. A micro –organism bacteria is a life figure that is moreover good, living in our lower part of the canal near stomach and anus which called intestine, such bacteria’s infecting our bodies and making the world population ill. Antibiotics are a kind of drugs used to treat these infections caused by bacteria. Healthy immune systems can be destroyed by bad bacteria before they can cause disorder in the whole body which causing illness. Human bodies assault the bacteria by transferring white blood cells to the unsafe bacteria separating the good bacteria unaccompanied. Antibiotics are frequently used for higher respiratory infections. But the mainstream...
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...Antibiotic resistance — what is it and why is it a problem? The development of antibiotics was one of the most important advances of medicine. Many bacterial infections (e.g. tuberculosis and infected wounds) that had previously had no effective treatment and often killed people, became treatable with antibiotics, saving millions of lives. Now, because of the overuse and misuse of antibiotics, bacterial infections that were once easily cured with antibiotics are becoming harder to treat. This is due to antibiotic resistance. The World Health Organization has called this one of the biggest threats to human health today. What is antibiotic resistance? Antibiotic resistance happens when bacteria change to protect themselves from an antibiotic. They are then no longer sensitive to that antibiotic. When this happens, antibiotics that previously would have killed the bacteria, or stopped them from multiplying, no longer work. What are ‘superbugs’? ‘Superbugs’ are bacteria that are resistant to several different antibiotics. The methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) bacteria commonly found in hospitals, and the bacteria that cause tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis), are now very hard to treat because of antibiotic resistance. Strains of Escherichia coli (E. coli) — the bacteria that causes many urinary tract infections — have also developed resistance to a number of antibiotics. How does antibiotic resistance affect me? Using antibiotics when you don’t...
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...Karim Hall Bronchitis Florida Technical College Abstract Bronchitis is one of the top 10 conditions for which most patients seek medical care for. Some physicians show considerable variability in describing the signs and symptoms when it is necessary to its diagnosis. A cough is also a most common symptom bringing patients to the primary care physician’s office, and bronchitis is usually the diagnosis in these patients. However, studies have indicated that many physicians treat bronchitis with antibiotics. These drugs have generally shown to become ineffective in patients with complicated bronchitis. A patient satisfaction with their treatment of bronchitis is related to the quality of the physician-patient interaction rather than to the prescription of an antibiotic. Bronchitis Bronchitis is an inflammation of the membrane that lines the air passages, or, bronchial tubes, of the lungs and results in the narrowing of these air passages. This disorder may be of either an acute or chronic type. Irritation of mucus-producing glands within the membrane results in the production of excess bronchial secretions. The main symptoms of bronchitis are cough and increased expectoration of sputum, with or without associated wheezing and shortness of breath. Men are more of a target to bronchitis then most women, men out numbering them 10 to 1 for reasons that are unclear. Acute bronchitis is a self-limited infection of the lower respiratory tract causing inflammation of the bronchi...
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...environment, or food safety. CAFOs in the United States are able to produce and process these large amounts of meat year-round by providing sheltered farms for a range of livestock such as cattle, swine, and sheep. However, within these farms animals are confined in limited spaces, making living conditions increasingly unhealthy and unsanitary. Brian Walsh, an environmental columnist at Time Magazine, observed that pigs are sometimes “packed so tightly with other swine that many of their curly tails have been chopped off so they won’t bite one another.” Conditions like these are prime locations for diseases to thrive and spread throughout the livestock. Although antibacterial immunizations are provided to the pigs, the bacteria and other viruses are constantly altering, leading to untreatable infections that can be easily passed onto workers and consumers. Contributing to the threat of new diseases, CAFOs contain massive pileups of feces and other excrements which do not provide safe living or breeding grounds for animals. With over 100 million tons of feces and urine produced annually by swine CAFOs alone, the total amount of unmanageable waste leads to increasing air and water pollution while diminishing the quality of life in surrounding communities (Burkholder). The United States and the Environmental Protection Agency need to strengthen rules and regulations of...
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...1.1 Identify the differences between Bacteria, Viruses, Fungi and parasites. The common characteristics of bacteria: Bacteria are microscopic single-cell organisms. Different types of bacteria can be identified by their size and shape. Bacteria can multiply outside the body. Most bacteria need moisture, time, warmth and nutrients to survive and multiply. Some bacteria are helpful. Some bacteria produce toxins which cause unpleasant symptoms. Most bacteria can be treated with antibiotics. Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics. The common characteristics of viruses: Viruses can only be seen with an electron microscope because they are so small. Only one or two particles are required to cause an infection. Viruses cannot survive for very long outside the body. Viruses cannot be treated with antibiotics but in some cases are treated with antiviral medication. The best defence against viruses is immunisation. Viruses can mutate to create new strains. Viruses can only multiply once they invade their host cell. The common characteristics of fungi: Fungi appears in the form of yeasts and moulds. Fungi infections can be localised or systemic. Some fungi are helpful. Fungi infections are treated with antifungal medication. The common characteristics of parasites: Parasites can live in or on the host body. Parasites survive by feeding from a host. Parasites are controlled and destroyed by antiparasitic medication. 1.2 Identify...
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...go on to explain how micro organisms are transmitted and the routes of entry to and exit from the human body of micro organisms. I will also be explaining the logical sequence of events that occur from entry of a micro-organism to the body to the appearance of symptoms of a disease and then go onto discuss why not all infections lead to a disease. Finally I will explain a logical sequence the signs, symptoms and treatments of yellow fever which is an infectious disease. Micro organisms are living organisms (such as bacteria, fungi, viruses) which are too small to even be seen with the naked eye but visible under a microscope also named microbe. There are five types of living micro organisms these are bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa and algae. Microorganisms are widespread in nature and are beneficial to life, but some can cause serious harm. They can be divided into six major types: bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses. Bacteria are unicellular organisms. The cells are described as prokaryotic because they lack a nucleus. They exist in four major shapes: bacillus (rod shape), coccus (spherical shape), spirilla (spiral shape), and vibrio (curved shape). Most bacteria have a peptidoglycan cell wall they divide by binary fission and they may possess flagella for motility. The difference in their cell wall structure is a major feature used in classifying these organisms. Bacteria can be further divided based on their response to gaseous oxygen into the...
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...concepts of Bacteriophages, bacterial infections, and drugs are essential to this experiment. In 1915, an English bacteriologist, Frederick Twort, made a shocking discovery of bacteriophages. Studying in the field of bacteriology as a professor, Twort investigated the growth of viruses. Later on, a French-Canadian microbiologist added on to the scientific finding. In 1917, Felix d’Herelle followed the study of viruses that infect bacteria, yet his idea as to exactly what bacteriophages where remained incorrect; (It was speculated that they fed off of bacteria). Many assumed that Felix was dependent to a source on his discovery, yet no corroborations were found to prove him fraudulent. Dating to 1939, a German physician, Helmut Ruska, was able to scrutinize a bacteriophage under a(n) (electron) microscope. As a result, phage therapy, or the use of bacteriophages to treat bacterial infections, became substantial as a result of not only being established to exist, but also being used to treat patients (d'Herell's actions). During the 1940s, Eli Lilly introduced phage therapy to the system of advertisement in the US. Bacteriophages being used as a remedy to bacterial diseases/ viruses, greatly impacted the battlefields and wounded during wars. Viral Phage therapy is being revised in our modern society, yet has not been approved due to its lack of safety and potentially problematic aftermath. Jesse Obright conducted a project associating with E. Coli...
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...that could resist the antibiotic, thus posing a renewed threat to the world’s population. Ever since the establishment of antibiotics, new “superbugs” have appeared that for years have challenged scientists to keep up with specialized medications to defeat and prevent these intrusive foes. Although most scientists have been effective in their research, newer, and stronger strains of super bacteria continue to appear. Many experts have concluded that the misuse of antibiotics is the main factor for the growth of this naturally occurring phenomenon. Due to incorrect prescriptions, poor drug quality and supply, and user non-compliance, antibiotic resistant bacteria have grown significantly in numbers, and now pose as a major threat to the global population. As humans, we tend to put our trust and our entire lives at the hands of our medical experts. Healthcare is one of the most expensive services in this country, so why should someone have to worry about contracting a superbug infection? Presently, there are many types of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, but the six most common make up the acronym ESKAPE: which are Staphylococcus Aureus, Klebsiella Pneumoniae, Acinetobacter Baunnannii, Pseudomonas Aeruginosa, and Enterobacter (Watson 10). The fact that there are so many complex strains of resistant bacteria helps to understand how prescribing treatment may be difficult. In the past, doctors often mistakenly prescribed antibiotics for infections caused...
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...Self-Study Quiz: What Can We Do About Antibiotic-resistant Bacteria? You Decide What Can We Do About Antibiotic-resistant Bacteria? Summarize, evaluate, and argue the validity of the data that demonstrate the problem of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Then present a plan for reducing this problem in the future. Keep these questions in mind: · What data supports the hypothesis that antibiotic-resistance is on the rise? What problems do you see in this data? Can you propose a way to overcome these problems · Which methods have been successful in decreasing the number of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains? Which methods have not? · What shortcomings or errors do these given studies have? Can you design a new study that would overcome them? Student Deliverable: Summarize, evaluate, and argue the validity of the data that demonstrate the problem of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Can antibiotic resistance be over come? What can we do?Let's start with washing our hands often with soap and water this will help to prevent a disease and also the need for antibiotics. Also, while handling food such as meet make sure meat is cooked though, and the food is handled hygienically. This will help with food-borne illnesses. We need to make sure to take antibiotics only if needed. What is happening is more often than most is, we tend to go to the doctor for the mere ordinary cold. But do you really need that antibiotic? A cold is a virus antibiotic will not help cure the common cold...
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...itself only within cells of living hosts. (Webster Dictionary) Along with being classified as a virus West Nile shows that it only infects certain and specific cells [Secondary Source]. Since Dmitri Ivanovsky's 1892 article describes a non-bacterial pathogen infecting tobacco plants, and the discovery of the tobacco mosaic virus by Martinus Beijerinck in 1898, about 5,000 viruses have been described in detail. [Secondary Source] Although there are millions of different types, viruses also undergo cycles in order to reproduce and harm and/or help organisms. There are two types of viral cycles known to men, the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle. In the lytic cycle the virus attaches itself to the host cell and nucleic acid is inserted into the cell. Next it makes copies of DNA and capsid and more viruses are assembled. Finally the viruses are released by bursting the cell and destroying it. The lysogenic cycle is slightly different than the first cycle only by a few characteristics. During the lysogenic cycle the virus also attaches and inserts nucleic acid into the cell, but instead of creating new viruses and let them be released, viral DNA is made along with the cell's DNA. That is called Provirus and the nucleic acid replicates with the cell. After that the cell can go to the lytic cycle at any time. While in the...
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...Microbiology Exam II Fall 2001 Name: _____________________________________________ Multiple Choice: Circle the most correct answer for each of the following questions. (2 points each) 1. In a DNA molecule, which base would you expect to find paired with cytosine? a. guanine b. uracil c. adenine d. thymine e. cytosine 2. DNA serves as the template to initiate protein synthesis. What is directly formed from this template? a. protein b. mRNA c. tRNA d. ATP e. Amino acids 3. What does ligase do during replication of DNA? a. Makes copies of mRNA from DNA b. Removes damaged sections of DNA c. Joins together mRNA d. Joins together DNA segments e. Digests mRNA when it is no longer needed 4. Which is mismatched? a. Replication = formation of 2 identical DNA molecules b. Transcription = mRNA synthesized from a DNA template c. Translation = tRNA transfers amino acids to the ribosomes based on mRNA codons d. Nonsense codons = terminator codons e. Anticodon = sequence of 3 nitrogenous bases on the gene 5. A red pigment produced by a bacterial species is an example of a(n)? a. Phenotype b. Genotype c. Operon d. Promoter e. Inducible enzyme 6. Which of the following best describes a plasmid? a. A gene within the...
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...allergy symptoms such as running nose, sneezing and watery eyes. There are millions of types of different bacteria, some good and some bad called pathogens, which can make a human ill. When a pathogen enters the body it attaches to cells, potentially damaging the cells and releases its toxins. The bodies white blood cells can destroy the pathogens however while the body destroys the pathogens it may also damage the surrounding tissue. In most cases antibiotics can be taken to kill the bacteria, it does this by stopping their growth or killing them it does this by preventing the bacteria from building up a cell wall. An example of a bacteria is acne, acne is caused by bacteria growing near or in the sebaceous glands in the skin which causes inflammation and white pus. Viruses also enter the body and attach to a host using it to reproduce at a really fast rate. Viruses like bacteria damage their host cells which in most cases causes it to die. Antibiotics don’t work on viruses as antibiotics prevent a cell wall from been formed however viruses don’t produce cell walls and instead use the bodies cells organelles to reproduce. Cystic Fibrosis is another serious condition that can cause a human to become ill. Cystic Fibrosis is...
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