• What are the elements of a decision? How does statistical decision theory differ in conditions of certainty and uncertainty? When making a decision, can doing nothing be a valid alternative? Why?

I think that the elements of decision making are centered around problem rationalization, boundary conditions, the right thing to do, action, and feedback. Uncertainty is a measure of variety such that uncertainty (H) is zero when all elements are in the same category. H increases with both the number of categories and their equiprobability. The uncertainty resulting from two or more sets of categories is the sum of the uncertainties of the sets of categories taken independently. H = the sum of P sub i times the log of P sub i, where P sub i is the probability of an element being in the Its category. Since the categories must be specified by an observer, the uncertainty of a system may be different as seen by different observers. In [DECISION UNDER risk] each alternative will have one of several possible consequences, and the probability of occurrence for each consequence is known. Therefore, each alternative is associated with a probability distribution, and a choice among probability distributions. When the probability distributions are unknown, one speaks about [DECISION UNDER uncertainty.]
(PRINCIPIA CYBERNETICA WEB , 2011)

• What skills do managers need today? Are these skills different from management skills of 50 years ago? Why?

I have to say that there are a number of skills that today’s managers need in contract to the manger 50 years ago. I imagine that a great deal of authority was asserted 50 years ago and not always in the most pleasant skills. Some of the skills that stand out to me are interpersonal skills, skill assessment skills, leadership skills, technology skills and many more. If you were to stick a manager from 50 years ago into todays