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Sistem Beraja Tamadun India / Indus

http://tamadundunia-stpm.blogspot.com/2009/03/sistem-beraja-tamadun-india-indus.html

Dalam tamadun awal India ( Tamadun Sungai Indus) yang bermula pada tahun 2500 SM, pemimpin adalah dari golongan pendeta dan berkuasa mutlak ( kerajaan bersifat teokrasi).Ini bermakna, India pada masa itu belum lagi melaksanakan pemerintahan beraja. Semasa India diperintah oleh Dinasti Maurya yang diasaskan oleh Chandragupta Maurya (321 SM), India mengamalkan sistem pemerintahan beraja mutlak dan secara monarki.Gelaran raja bertukar menjadi maharaja apabila perluasan kuasa ke kawasan-kekawasan sekitar dilakukan. Kerajaan ini kuat dengan bantuan 700,000 orang tentera yang cekap tetapi tiada belas kesihan. Petani-petani dikenakan cukai yang berat di bawah pengawasan pegawai-pegawai raja yang sangat zalim. Raja memerintah dengan bantuan Majlis Penasihat. Empayar dibahagikan kepada 5 bahagian atau wilayah dan setiap wilayah diketuai seorang wizurai. Kerajaan ini mempunyai Pejabat Peperangan yang mengandungi 6 Jabatan dan Perkhidmatan Perisik yang teratur. Pentadbiran awam termasuk Badan Perdagangan, Jabatan Kerja, Badan Upah dan Pendaftaran kelahiran, kematian dan pendapatan. Bandar-bandar dalam empayar Maurya ditadbir oleh satu badan yang dibahagikan kepada 6 jawatankuasa dan dianggotai 30 orang ahli. Ada ahli sejarah berpendapat, Chandragupta Maurya ini menjelankan sistem pemerintahan awam untuk kesejahteraan rakyat dan kemakmuran negara dengan memperbaiki sistem keadilan dan pentadbiran.
Ketika India diperintah oleh Maharaja Asoka (273 SM atau 269 SM) , baginda menjalankan pemerintahan dengan baik dan berperikemanusiaan berdasarkan titah perintahnya yang diukir pada tiang-tiang batu di sepanjang jalan untuk dibaca oleh rakyat. Semua orang diberi hak dan peluang yang sama dalam pentadbiran.. Asoka sangat benci kepada kemusnahan, kekejaman dan permusuhan. Baginda membawa semangat kemanusiaan baru di kalangan raja-raja hasil dari ajaran agama Buddha yang bertindak atas rasa sensitif dan tidak mementingkan diri sendiri.Beliau mengamalkan doktrin ‘Ahimsa’ yang melarang perbuatan menyakiti atau melukai haiwan dan manusia. Asoka juga menjalankan reformasi dalam pentadbiran melalui ‘Dharma-Mahamatra’. Sistem ini memastikan pegawai-pegawai kerajaan di wilayah-wilayah melaksanakan tugas berdasarkan arahan kerajaan pusat. Asoka memerintahkan gabenor-gabenor dan pegawai-pegawainya supaya adil dan bersifat belas kesihan. Asoka juga menyediakan rumah-rumah rehat, telaga dan pokok kayu untuk kemudahan pengembara dan menyediakan rumah sakit bagi merawat orang dan haiwan yang sakit. Semasa India di bawah pemerintahan raja-raja Gupta, kerajaan ini juga tidak mengganggu kehidupan rakyat kecuali untuk membasmi jenayah, tiada penganiaan terhadap agama. Hukuman bunuh jarang dilakukan. Kebanyakan kesalahan yang dilakukan dikenakan hukuman denda.

http://tatapanminda.wordpress.com/2012/09/14/sejarah-tingkatan-4-bab-1-kemunculan-tamadun-awal-manusia-2/

Tamadun Indus (2500-1800SM) wujud di Lembah Sungai Indus
a) Ciri-ciri Tamadun 1. Petempatan – petempatan kekal dan dua bandar terpenting Mohenjo Daro dan Harappa 2. Pengkhususan Kerja- bidang perdagangan, pertanian, pertukangan 3. Organisasi Sosial - golongan atasan dan golongan bawahan 4. Tulisan - berbentuk piktograf 5. Agama – menyembah patung Proto Shiva dan percaya tuhan Ibu
b) Sumbangan Tamadun Indus 1. Bandar Terancang – membina Bandar mengikur susunan segiempat berasaskan geometri, kesenian dan matematik 2. Sifat keterbukaan – mempunyai hubungan dengan tamadun Indus, Mesir dan Mesopotamia.
Tamadun Hwang Ho wujud di sekitar Sungai Hwang Ho atau Sungai Kuning.
a) Ciri-ciri tamadun 1. Dinasti – Wujud Dinasti Shang, Dinasti Hsia dan Dinasti Chou 2. Negara Kota – kotaAnyang (pusat keagamaan, pentadbiran dan tempat tinggal) 3. Pengkhususan kerja – petani, tentera, artisan, hamba 4. Organisasi sosial – Golongan atasan dan golongan bawahan 5. Agama dan kepercayaan – animisme dan politeisme ( tulang oracle untuk meramal sesuatu) 6. Sistem Pemerintahan – sistem beraja 7. Sistem tulisan – berbentuk ideogram (symbol)
b) Sumbangan Tamadun Hwang Ho 1. Politik - pemerintahan monarki hingga zaman dinasti Ching 2. Ekonomi – sistem pengairan untuk pertanian dan mengelak banjir,
- kemajuan teknologi membajak
- penciptaan sabit,
- penggunaan batas pertanian 1. Kepercayaan - unsur pemujaan
- konsep yin dan yeng serta feng shui
- sumbangan falsafah Sun Tzu ( The Art of War)

http://www.slideshare.net/MalarMuthiah/tamadun-indus-8720421

Tamadun Hwang Ho

http://sejarahproka.blogspot.com/2012/08/tamadun-hwang-ho.html

Tamadun Hwang Ho

Lokasi

 Sungai merupakan nadi utama bagi pembentukan tamadun Hwang Ho.

 Tamadun ini muncul daripada kesuburan tanah yang terdapat di Hwang Ho atau Sungai Kuning.

 Hwang Ho merupakan sungai kedua terpanjang di China (5464 km) dan terletak di bahagian utara negara China .

 Hwang Ho mengalir dari kawasan tanah tinggi di sebelah barat ke Teluk Bo Hai di sebelah timur.

Ciri-ciri fizikal lokasi : bergunang-ganang dan berpadang pasir .

Kerangka Masa

 Kemunculan tamadun dikesan daripada jumpaaan tengkorak homo sapien , juga dikenali sebagai Peking Men pada sekitar tahun 400 000 S.M..

(Jumpaan ini membuktikan adanya kehidupan Zaman Paleolitik)

 Zaman Neolitik muncul pada sekitar tahun 5000 S.M..

(Era ini munculnya akitiviti pertanian dan penternakan.)

 Dinasti Hsia merupakan dinasti beraja pertama di China yang bermula pada sekitar tauhn 2205-1766 S.M..

-Pada penghujung pemerintahan Dinasti Shang ,kebangkitan hamba telah dimunculkan kerana kezaliman pemerintahan Raja Shang.

-Ini telah mendorong suku Chou yang mendiami Lembah Sungai Wei megambil kesempatan untuk mengyingkirkan dan menggantikan pemerintahan Shang dengan pemerintana Dinasi Chou.

Proses Pembentukan Tamadun Hwang Ho

 Kesuburan kawasan sekitar Hwang Ho telah menarik penduduk nomad untuk tinggal menetap , membina petempatan awal.

 Mereka menjalankan aktiviti pertanian ,penternakan binatang ,mengunpul hasil hutan dan memburu.

 Perkembangan petempatan awal ini melahirkan beberapa buah Bandar di Lembah Hwang Ho.

 Anyang merupakan pusat kerajaan Dinasti Shang .

Pembentukan Dinasti Shang telah membawa kemajuan dalam usaha perluasan wilayah dan penyebaran buadaya ke kawasan sekitar Lembah Hwang Ho.

Ciri-ciri

Negara Kota -Anyang

 terletak di kawah tanah tinggi di Sungai Huan

 terdapat istana , kuil dan pusat pentadbiran di Bandar.

 Ketua pemerintahan(raja, golongan pembesar dan golongan agama) tinggal di kawasan bandar.

 Bandar Anyang dilengkapi dengan tembok .

 Untuk menghalang pencerobohan musuh dan dikelilingi oleh

perkampungan yang didiami oleh masyarakat petani.

Organisasi Sosial

 Susun lapis dalam organisasi sosial masyarakat Shang dapat dibahagikan kepada dua , iaita lapisan atasan dan lapisan bawahan

 Golongan raja dan pembesar menduduki lapisan paling atas yang diterajui oleh raja.

 Lapisan bawahan dibentuk oleh golongan petani.

Golongan ini yang membentuk sebahagian besar pendudukyang mendiami kawasan tinggal di luar bandar , inaitu di sekeliling Negara kota.

 Golongan artisan juga terdapat dalam lapisan bawahan.

Golongan ini wujud sebahagian besar kerana penguasaan mereka dalam teknologi gangsa.

 Gangsa telah digunakan untuk menghasilkan senjata,perisaidan hiasan pada kereta kuda (digunakan oleh tentera ,serta peralatan untuk upacara keagamaan)

 Hanyalah golongan pembesar sahaja yang mampu memiliki tentera dan senjata gangsa.

 Maka, golongan pembesar menggunakan keistimewaan mereka untuk menundukkan golongan bawahan.

 Golongan paling bawah dalam masyarakat Shang ialah hamba.

 Perhambaan merupakan satu ciri utama dalam Dinasti Shang.

Susun lapis masyarakat tamadun Hwang Ho.

Pengkhususan pekerjaan

 Terdapat dua kumpulan tentera :

- Tentera yang menggunakan kereta kuda

- Tentera berjalan kaki.

 Golongan petani sebagai tonggak ekonomi dan pentadbiran berperanan untuk memenuhi keperluan golongan atasan .

 Golongan artisan yang berperanan untuk cipta pelbagai barangan tembaga .

 Golongan hamba berfungsi sebagai :

- Tentera paksaan

- Digunakan untuk membantu kerja-kerja perburuhan

- Untuk tujuan korban dalam upacara penyembahan.

Sistem pemerintahan

 Dinasti Shang berbentuk pemerintahan beraja .

 Pengganti raja dilantik daripada kalangan saudara lelaki yang lebih muda atatu anak lelaki raja.

 Raja berkuasa secara langsung di kawasan pusat pentadbiran .

 Masyarakat tamadun ini percaya bahawa kuasa raja merupakan mandat daripada tuhan

Mandat daripada tuhan :

Masyarakat Hwang Ho percaya bahawa raja memerintah dengan adil , kerajaan dan rakyat akan menikmati kemakmuran dan kesejahteraan hidup kerana pemerintahan itu direstui tuhan.

 Urusan pentadbiran raja dibantu oleh golongan bangsawan dan pegawai kerajaan.

 Bagi wilayah di luar pusat pentadbiran , pemerintahan Dinasti Shang dibantu oleh golongan bangsawan.

 Golongan bangsawan dipertanggungjawabkan untuk mentadbir wilayahnya.

-Mereka berhak mewujudkan sistem pentadbirannya sendiri dalam hal seperti: pungutan cukai , pertahanan, undang-undang

 Dinasti Chou telah mengasimilasikan sistem yang sama apabila mereka mengambil alih pemerintahan Shang.

Dinasti Chou

 Raja – raja Dinasti Chou membahagikan pemilikan tanah mereka kepada wilayah-wilayah.

 Mereka telah melantik pembesar tempatan di setiap wilayah ini.

 Raja-raja Dinasti Chou mengikat pembesar tempatan melalui :

-Ikrar taat setia kepada pemerintahan Chou

-Memberikan hadiah seperti kereta kuda ,senjata gangsa ,hamba ,binatang

 Mereka juga diminta melindungi raja dan memberikan bantuan tentera pada masa perang .

 Pembesar tempatan diberikan hak untuk bertindak sebagai ketua agama

- Untuk menjalankan upacara pengorbanan

Agama dan kepercayaan

 Masyarakat tamadun Hwang Ho mengamalkan banyak kepercayaan :

Animisme

Kepercayaan setiap benda seperti batu dan pokok mempunyai semangat (jiwa dan roh ) orang mati

Politeisme

Penyembahan terhadap lebih daripada satu tuhan

 Masyarakat Shang mengamalkan penyembahan roh nenek moyang.

 Mereka juga menyembah tuhan syurga ( Shang-ti) , tuhan bumi (Tu) , di samping penyembahan terhadap sungai , bukit dan gunung.

 Upacara penyembahan melibatkan permainan muzik,tarian dan upacara korban yang diketuai oleh golongan bomoh.

 Jumpaan tulang binatang dan kulit kura kura di Anyang juga merupakan keunikan tamadun ini .

- Tulang yang ditemui dikenali sebagai tulang oracle.

- Fungsinya adalah untuk meramal sesuatu keadaan.

- Golongan bomoh yang terlibat dalam upacara penilikan ini akan meletakkan tulang ini di atas unggun api sehingga timbuh rekahan .

- Rekahan ini akan ditafsirkan dan disabitkan dengan sesuatu kejadian.

Sistem Tulisan

 Rekahan-rekahan pada tulang oracle telah menimbulkan idea masyarakat tempatan untuk mencipta tulisan.

 Tulisan China berbentuk ideogram ,iaitu tulisan berbentuk symbol.

Sumbangan Tamadun Hwang Ho

1. Pembinaan sistem pengairan

 Terusan-terusan telah dibinakan untuk mengairkan kawasan pertanian dan mengelakkan berlakunya banjir.

 Sistem pengairan ini telah diteruskan pada zaman Chin oleh Shih Huang Ti ke kawasan barat daya China.

 Sebuah terusan telah dibina di Szechwan untuk mengairkan kawasan pertanian .

2. Pembangunan dalam sector pertanian

 Pembangunan ini telah membawa kemajuan dalam teknologi pembajakan serta penciptaan cangkul dan sabit.

 Pada zaman ini , petani mula menggunakan batas untuk tujuan penanaman.

 Petani China juga mula menggantikan alat pertanian yang dibuat daripada kayu dengan yang dibuat daripada besi.

3. Sistem Tulisan

 Sistem tulisan ini telah berkembang secare evolusi dan masih digunakan oleh orang China sehingga hari ini.

 Tulisan ini telah digunakan dalam penulisan dan percetakan secara luas.

 Tulisan ini juga diajar di sekolah-sekolah di China.

 Tulisan ini terus berkembang dengan penggunaannya oleh orang Korea dan Jepun.

4. Pemujaan roh nenk moyang

 Merupakan salah satu kepercayaan yang masih berkekalan sehingga hari ini.

 Misalnya, unsur korban manusia tidak lagi diamalkan.

 Unsur ini telah digantikan dengan unsur makanan,duit kertas dan barangan perhiasan.

5. Konsep Yin dan Yang , Feng Hsui

 Ini merupakan dua daripada kepercayaan yang masih terdapat dalam masyarakat China.

 Orang China percaya bahawa alam semesta dan kejadiannya terdiri daripada dua unsur yang saling melengapi , iaitu Yin dan Yang.

-Yin ialah kuasa pasif dan Yang ialah kuasa aktif.

 Semasa pemerintahan Shang , sistem kalendar telah diperkenalkan.

 Kalendar ini terdapat 30hari dalam sebulan dan 360 hari dalam setahun.

 Raja menggunakan kalendar ini untuk menentukan musim menanam dan musim menuai.

 Amalan penggunaan calendar telah diteruskan untuk menjalankan aktiviti harian seperti upacara perkahwinan ,perburuhan ataupun pengkebumian.

6. Pengamalan falsafah perang Sun Tzu

 Karya falsafah ini , the Art of War telah membicarakan tentang:

-Selok-belok perang

-Cara menangani musuh

 Falsafah tersubut juga diaplokasihkan sebagai taktik dalam urusan perniagaan pada hari ini.

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...2NE1 - I'm The Best [CL]Naega jeil jal naga Naega jeil jal naga Naega jeil jal naga Naega jeil jal naga Je je jeil jal naga Bam Ratatata Tatatatata Bam Ratatata Tatatatata Bam Ratatata Tatatatata Bam Ratatata Tatatatata Oh my god [BOM]Nuga bwado naega jom jug-yeojujanh-a Alright Duljjaegalamyeon I mom-i seoleobjanh-a Alright [DARA]Neon dwileul ttalaojiman Nan apman bogo jiljuhae Nega anj-eun teibeul wileul ttwieodanyeo I don't care [CL]Geondeulimyeon gamdang moshae I'm hot hot hot hot fire Dwijib-eojigi jeon-e Jebal nuga nal jom mallyeo [MINJI]Osjang-eul yeol-eo gajang Sangkeumhan os-eul geolchigo Geoul-e bichin nae eolgul-eul Kkomkkomhi salpigo Jigeum-eun yeodeolb si Yagsogsigan-eun yeodeolb si ban Dodohan geol-eum-eulo naseon I bam [CL]Naega jeil jal naga Naega jeil jal naga Naega jeil jal naga Naega jeil jal naga Je je jeil jal naga [MINJI]Naega bwado naega jom kkeutnaejujanh-a Alright Nega nalado I mom-i buleobjanh-a Alright [BOM]Namjadeul-eun nal dol-abogo Yeojadeul-eun ttalahae Naega anj-eun I jalileul Maeil neombwa pigonhae [DARA]Seonsu-incheog pomman jabneun Eolibeolihan Playa Neon balam ppajin taieocheoleom Bogi johge chayeo [CL]Eotteon bigyodo nan geobuhae Igeon gyeomsonhan yaegi Gachileul nonhajamyeon nan Billion dollar baby Mwol jjom aneun salamdeul-eun Da al-aseo al-abwa Amuna jabgo mul-eobwa Nuga jeil jal naga Naega jeil jal naga Naega jeil jal naga Naega jeil jal naga Naega jeil...

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...Chitra Buxani May 28, 2014 COMM 1110 Music Speech of Introduction Attention Getter: When you hear the words, “The King of Pop”, or these famous words, “Hee Hee Woo Woo”, who do you all think of. If you all guessed Michael Jackson you are absolutely right. Introduction: Michael Jackson who is Rani’s all-time favorite musical artist has a huge list of accomplishments. Here are just a few, he was an American singer, song writer, musician, dancer, businessman, and a perfectionist. P 1: Rani first heard about Michael Jackson when she was about 10 years of age. She was getting bored and did not know what to watch on television, she kept changing the channels until she stumbled upon a skinny man with shiny clothes dancing in a way that she had not seen before. P 2: She turned to her dad and asked him, dad who is this man and what type of dance is this man doing? Her dad explained to her who this man was and that dance he was performing was the Moonwalk. His dancing moves and music were so different and unique that she wanted to learn the lyrics and his style of dancing. It took some determination and hard work but she eventually got it. P 3: When Rani listens to Michael Jackson’s music she experiences many happy emotions; it takes her back in time to her childhood years where she had no worries and stress. She remembers how her dad taught her how to dance. Any occasion that she experienced in her life whether it be a happy or a sad occasion Michael’s music was always...

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...Those Roses Shipping: Contestshipping Rating: PG13 Type: One-shot =+=+=+= CS one-shot. I made May's birthday 23rd of May cuz 2 and 3 are my favorite numbers. I simply made the date as Saturday, but surprisingly, when I checked my calendar, May 23rd was really Saturday! Such a great coincidence! XD =+=+=+= Sunlight shone particularly bright that morning, awaking a girl from her precious sleep. The girl roared by a sudden flash on her face, deeply disturbed. Her one hand groped vigorously on her king-sized bed, while the other one trying to block her eyes from the blinding sunlight. "Blanket, blanket! Where's that stupid blanket?!" screamed the brunette on the bed. Finding no blanket on the bed, her hand reached a bolster and crushed it on her face. Her body relaxed as darkness covered her eyes again. She moved her legs to a more comfortable position, then continued her sleep. Not even a millisecond after, loud screeches of Crobat disturbed her again, making her to bury her head under a pillow to stifle the noise. After two dreadful minutes of burying, the brunette finally gave up. She gripped her bolster and tossed it roughly aside. "AAARGHH!" she shouted madly, grabbing a Crobat alarm on a white nightstand next to her bed. She peered through her left eye while yawning. 'Sat 23rd May 2009 07:01'. "WHAT? 07.01 AM? Curse whoever had set my alarm." she mentally cursed. Placing her alarm back to the nightstand, she groaned, "Cow-brain idiotic foolish stupid fatuous...

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...African Journal of Business Management Vol.5 (32), pp. 12512-12519,14 Dcember, 2011 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/AJBM DOI: 10.5897/AJBM11.626 ISSN 1993-8233©2011 Academic Journals Full Length Research Paper Mobile phone to youngsters: Necessity or addiction Ishfaq Ahmed1*, Tehmina Fiaz Qazi2 and Khadija Aijaz Perji2 2 Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru, Malaysia Hailey College of Commerce, University of the Punjab, Pakistan. Accepted 15 June, 2011 1 This study focuses on exploring the pattern of mobile phone usage among youngsters in Pakistan to delineate the extent of addictive behavior towards its usage. For this purpose questionnaires were used to elicit the responses. University students were selected as population and simple random sampling technique was used. Sample was consisting of 500 students out of which 400 students responded back comprising 80% response rate for this research. Findings of this study revealed that majority respondents are able to have definite priorities between their responsibilities and commitments and their cell phone usage. Very few are those who always exhibit the extreme addictive behaviors and rest is the majority who are not frequently involved in addictive usage patterns. Thus, youngsters use their cell phones under reasonable limits and do not tend towards extreme behaviors leading towards addictive cell phone usage. Key words: Mobile phone, addiction, youngsters, youth, Pakistan. INTRODUCTION...

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...Africa Poverty             Africa is one of the poorest countries in the world. People that live there are having a hard time being able to have food and water to survive. According to 2011 poverty average, few African are getting affected with starvation and not able to afford any money for their families. Education and Medicine are a big factor in Africa. Students are not able to go to school without any one helping them pay for their education or medicate. These are just few things that are still going on today in Africa. African children’s are looking beyond all this as a test in their life to see how much they trust in their self then others to overcome all these problems. Poverty in Africa is always struggling to hold on every day to making a living in their life.               A quote by Nelson states, “Overcoming poverty is not a gesture of charity, it is an act of justice” shows about how people are showing their love for others in time of troubles they are facing every day. (Mandela). He quote tells the whole story of how people are still living no matter what comes their way. Although they are struggling to hold on, they always keep themself strong for everything. There are people out in Africa who trust in God because without God, they would not know how they will be able to get up every day and walk. Today’s generation in Africa are always enjoying life no matter what the outcomes are in their lives. Seeing people that live there, it hurts that they don’t have...

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