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2009全球红酒大战:新旧世界的对抗 P1我们有人才,专门知识,技术,承诺到2025年拥有全球杰出的红酒,它会在可持续发展的基础上,提前抢占市场,影响顾客的需求。 ----------Sam Toley,澳大利亚葡萄酒和白兰地公司总裁 通过逐渐停止过量葡萄酒的回购协议和增加对农民的激励机制以铲除葡萄藤,教统会的改革只会带来新世界的农用工业模式。我们需要保护建立在传统葡萄园基础上的古老的欧洲模式。 ——————Jane Louis Piton,Copa-Cogeca 农民协会 2009年,这两种反映完全不同观点引起激烈争论,在传统葡萄酒生产商和一些新的行业参与者争夺全球红酒市场230billion美元的市场份额时,许多传统的葡萄酒生产厂商,如法国,西班牙,意大利,发现他们被葡萄酒酿造传统、行业法规,复杂的国家和欧共体法律所约束,这就为新世界的葡萄酒公司,比如澳大利亚、美国、智利提供了挑战旧的生产厂商,在价值链的每个阶段引进创新的机会。 • 在开始 葡萄种植和酿酒早在古埃及和古希腊把酒作为悼念法老和暴风雨神的贡品时就占据了人们的思想。罗马帝国时期,葡萄栽培技术传遍了地中海地区,几乎每一个城市都有其当地的葡萄园,葡萄酒作为饮料也成为了日常膳食之一。基督纪元时,葡萄酒成为了礼拜式服务的一部分,修道院也种植葡萄,并建酿酒厂。到了中世纪,欧洲贵族开始种植标志着威望的葡萄园,在宴会桌上和其他酒的品质做对比——由此出现了第一个保管酒的壁龛市场。
P2葡萄酒生产
田间管理和收获葡萄一直是劳动密集型的,一个工人通常最多可照顾3公顷的土地(1公顷=2.47英亩)早在19世纪,关于葡萄园的介绍就使得葡萄种植更有效率,并且一个人可以照料7公顷的土地。 然而尽管效率很高,葡萄园规模正在变小,而不是变大。许多世纪以来,小农业财产不断被分割,土地被国王所分配,或者用于战争,获证通过继承被分割。法国大革命时期,大量财富被占有、划分和拍卖。1815年后,拿破仑一世继承法规定了土地要如何传给合法继承人。到19世纪中期,法国的平均持有土地是5.5公顷并且还在被分割(在意大利,相似的事件使得人均为0.8公顷) 当那些财产继承人在制造他们的葡萄酒时,大多数小农户把他们的葡萄向当地葡萄酒生产商和酿酒商出售。重量作为支付的基础,并没有什么激励机制来鼓励减少产量追求质量。一些小种植者成立合作社,希望参与葡萄酒酿造的下游利润,但葡萄种植和葡萄酒酿造依然高度分散。
分销和营销
传统上,酒被大量卖给商船商人,那些经常在分销前混合或对产品进行瓶装的法国商人。但曲折的道路、复杂的通行费和税收系统使得跨境运输极其昂贵。19世纪早期,酒从法国的斯特拉斯堡到荷兰边境不得不通过 31 个收费站。因为酒的运输问题,许多都会在长途运输中破损,因此,只有最老练的商人能够应对出口,只有富人才能负担得起进口奢侈品。 18世纪晚期,一系列技术创新比如玻璃瓶的大规模生产,软木塞的使用,巴氏杀菌法的发展彻底改变了这个行业。葡萄酒以更大的稳定性和长寿分销到遥远的市场,一瓶好的有年份的葡萄酒成了家常便饭,随之增加的葡萄种植和产量扩大,诞生了全球葡萄酒市场。
管理和分类
随着工业的发展,它对生产国的文化和经济生活日益重要。18世纪中叶的法国,葡萄种植支持 150 万
家庭和同等数量的葡萄酒相关业务。最终,它占了六分之一的法国的总交易税收,并且该国第二大出口产品。
该行业的日益增长的文化和经济上的重要性引起了政治的重视,并与它、 法律和条例一起控制了酿酒几乎每一个方面。例如,德国 1644年酒的分类方案规定 65 等级的品质,从成熟、采伐所需的一切规则到最低含糖量。(甚至在 1971 年,德国通过了一项法律要求政府每年测试葡萄酒年份并确定它的质量水平)类似的规定也存在于法国和意大利。 相对于抵制这种政府分类和控制,生产者往往会支持和甚至增强他们作为区分他们的产品和提高进入壁垒的一种方式。例如,当前法国的分类制度是由波尔多委员会在1855年巴黎的博览会之前制定的。为了帮助消费者识别他们最好的葡萄酒,他们把大约 500个葡萄园分为五个级别的质量,从总理 cru (首次增长) 到 cinquième cru (第五次增长)。 P3因为他们帮助消费者对高度分散的市场的复杂性进行了整理,这些营销工具很快就得到了广泛的认可,政府编纂和扩充了1935 年的AOC法律。这些法律还为葡萄园和酿酒师设置了区域壁垒和详细的刚性标准。最终,超过 300家AOC 指定被授权,从著名的(圣埃美浓或薄酒) 到默默无闻的(Fitou 或圣 Péray)(类似的分类方案后来被引入意大利定义 213Denominazione di Origne Controllate(或 DOC) 允许区域,每个规定了种植面积,葡萄品种,产量,所需的种植实践,可接受的酒精含量,标签的设计等。) 后来,法国其他葡萄酒产区也被正式承认Vins 分类和Delimités de Qualite 为(VDQS),但这些通常被视为比 AOC 低等级的葡萄酒。VDQS以下Vins de自付或国酒——便宜但非常适合饮用,并越来越多地用于出口。这些类别是相当刚性的与几乎没有波动。这是由于质量是与风土、近乎神秘的结合土壤、 方坡向、 小气候,降雨,栽培和法国激情挂钩的信仰使得每个区域的酒都不同-----事实上,每个葡萄园---- 都有其独特的性质。 但是风土不能保证稳定的质量。作为一个农业产品,酒永远会受到变化无常的天气和疾病的影响。在19th世纪的第四季度,一个新世界的致命昆虫根瘤蚜摧毁了法国葡萄酒。从1876年5亿的产量下降到1885年的200万升,但一个解决办法在意料之外被发现:法国葡萄藤被嫁接到原产于美国加州酒业的抗根瘤蚜葡萄藤上,这是第一次在许多旧世界中承认新世界葡萄酒行业的存在。这不会是最后一次。 • 新世界的萌芽 尽管新世界在规模和声誉上与在同行业相比微不足道,尤其传统的葡萄酒生产国、 葡萄园和酿酒师从18世纪以来就在新世界国家建立。在美国,例如,Thomas Jefferson,一个热情的葡萄酒类学家,成为在弗吉尼亚州建立葡萄园一个领先的声音。在澳大利亚,葡萄藤被第一批船队在1788年携带罪犯和定居时一起带来。新兴的葡萄酒行业也正在此时在阿根廷、 智利和南非,这些通常被旧世界的移民所影响的葡萄酒国家发展。
开辟新的市场
虽然气候和土壤允许葡萄种植在新大陆蓬勃发展,但酒的消费在这些国家相差很大。它成为阿根廷和智利民族文化的一部分,人均年消费量达到了阿根廷约 80 升和智利约50 升在20世纪60年代。虽然这种利率都远远落后于法国和意大利,但这两个国家均吹嘘他们在这个时代的110-120升的消费量是可以媲美西班牙的。 其他新世界文化未能很快接受这种新兴产业。在澳大利亚,炎热的气候和主导英国遗产的传统啤酒偏好,与酒精饮料一起被旧世界的移民所消耗。美国市场更复杂的。为保持该国的朗姆酒贸易中心地位,一部分遵循喝烈性酒的传统,但另一组反映该国的清教徒遗产拥护节制或禁欲。(1994 年,最近一项盖洛普调查发现45%的美国受访者不喝酒,21%青睐禁止更新)。其结果是,二战前,酒很大程度上是销往欧洲移民社区的。 P4然而,在战后时期,美国,澳大利亚和其他新世界生产商对葡萄酒的需求迅速增加。例如在美国,消费增长从禁止每年人均水平的1公升到2006年的9 升。在澳大利亚的增幅更大,从1960年不到2 升到2006年的24升。这一消费增长与日益增长的需求高质量的葡萄酒相关,在国内的繁荣证明了对一个年轻的新世界葡萄酒行业的需求。
具有挑战性的生产规范
在战后经济繁荣的背景下,新世界葡萄酒生产商开发发展了不同于他们的欧洲同行环境的产业。第一,合适的土地被广泛使用,较低的成本允许更广泛的葡萄园增加。因此在 2006 年,美国平均葡萄园面积是 213公顷,澳大利亚是167公顷,相比而言,意大利人平均1.3公顷,法国的7.4公顷。 不受传统约束,新世界生产商也开始尝试使用葡萄种植和葡萄酒酿造技术。在澳大利亚,控制滴灌肥沃了贫瘠土地,减少老式变异。(正相反,根据 AOC规例灌溉在法国是严格禁止的),更大的葡萄园也允许使用专门的设备如机械收割机和机械修枝,大大降低了劳动成本。 创新还延伸到葡萄栽培技术,如新世界生产者追求晚上收获以使葡萄含糖量最大化,而新型框架允许藤的种植密度是传统的两倍。其他实验化肥和修剪方法能够增加产量和提高葡萄的风味。这些创新做法,再加上晴朗的气候,这些地区新世界农民摆脱了同行的压力,而波尔多地区多雨的海洋气候增加了秋收的风险,葡萄酒生产者每年都要受制于葡萄酒的变化。 新世界的葡萄酒公司也打破了很多葡萄酒酿造传统。大地产通常对现场实验室提供分析在生长和收获上的决策很有帮助。上世纪90年代,一些尝试用反渗透技术浓缩汁(或必须)的实验确保了有丰富口感的葡萄酒。(讽刺的是,这项技术在法国被开发,但是大多数法国生产者谴责这种作为是"消除酒的诗意"。不用说,根据AOC的规例这是被禁止的)。新世界葡萄酒制造商还开发了允许发酵和老化的进程,这出现在巨大的、 由计算机控制的不锈钢罐中而不是在传统的橡木桶中。为了提供橡木味,有些添加橡木片增加葡萄酒年龄,以卖出更好的价格— —这是另一种在大多数传统生产国严格禁止的做法。 这些和其他创新产生的经济影响通过比较两大流行价位葡萄酒生产商:澳大利亚的里弗赖纳区与法国的Langedoc区。法国每吨的成本是€238比澳大利亚的成本€137.7高74%,美国南方葡萄种植成本更低,压低了价格,流行的高档酒在欧洲€2一瓶,然而法国Vins de支付价格高于€3。
重建营销模式
除种植和酿酒实验外,新世界生产商也在创新包装和营销方式。虽然欧洲有针对庞大的葡萄酒市场销售流行的升瓶装vin de,澳大利亚人开发了创新的"酒在箱中"包装。用一个可折叠的塑料袋和配方栓把酒装在一个紧凑的纸板箱中,箱子的形状和重量不仅节省了运输成本,也使得消费者的冰箱存储更方便。最近,澳大利亚生产商开始用螺钉固定取代软木塞,甚至对优质葡萄酒的瓶盖也是这样。基于逻辑的不只是在经济方面,还有这一事实:很多葡萄酒,尤其是微妙的白人,如果软木塞有破损容易受影响。 P5从其早期市场经验上来看,新世界生产商了解到了产品差异性的价值,使不习惯酒的口味更具吸引力。几个早期开发的古朴口味的产品都大获成功----例如美国的纹波酒及澳大利亚的罗莎明珠--- 但是却被鉴赏家作为新世界葡萄酒酿造技能低的证据而驳回。然而这些实验在品牌塑造和营销上提供了宝贵的经验教训------1970 年代以前这个行业的技能是罕见的。 随着广大群众需求潜力增大,1977年可口可乐收购泰勒加州的酒窖。其他有经验的消费市场如雀巢、 皮尔斯伯里和施格兰公司也紧随其后,传统的智慧是把其先进的营销技术打入主要品牌的消费产品。但所面临的挑战证明这比预期更加困难,十年内外来者已销售一空。然而他们影响力消费态度和遗留下来的复杂的营销技巧。 其他重要事项变更在新世界公司的推动下分布。从历史上看,支离破碎的生产者和严格的政府法规创造了长时间、 多层次的价值链,与服务提供商缺乏有效的在许多规模或所经营的专门知识的链接。相比之下,大的新世界葡萄酒公司通常控制整个价值链,提取每一级别的边距和保留与越来越集中于的零售商讨价还价的权利。因为他们的名字是最终的产品,他们控制着每一步的质量。 传统主义者认为新世界建立的葡萄种植和葡萄酒酿造的方式是亵渎神灵。他们争辩说,驱动的效率和一致性,并在渴望迎合消费者不太复杂的口味时,新世界生产者失去了传统的方式变量的特性。他们感到震惊的是这些"工程产品"使用称谓的名称出售------夏布利葡萄酒,勃艮第,香槟等等。作为回应,欧洲共同体 (欧共体) 通过了这种做法是非法的法规。新世界葡萄酒生产商通过识别他们的葡萄酒的葡萄品种,逐步调整产品名称,最终消费者认可了发达国家定义的偏好-------赤霞珠,梅鹿辄或与霞多丽与长相思,实际上,很多人似乎发现这比试图理解渗透了许多复杂的区域指定更容易,每个传统的产酒国都改进了。
巴黎的判断
1976年5月24日,和美国二百周年纪念联系在一起,英国葡萄酒商人举办了一个盲品来自法国和美国加州的葡萄酒小组正确率最高的哗众取宠的活动。尽管九法国葡萄酒的评审团批评在巴黎举行有巨大的"主场优势",但美国条目参加红色和白色的比赛获得了最高荣誉。当法国生产者抱怨说所谓"巴黎的判断"被操纵时,一个新的判断活动两年后了。再次,加州葡萄酒取得了胜利。 该事件是该行业的一个分水岭。公众提高了认识,新的世界生产高品质的葡萄酒,对拒绝创新的人带来了巨大冲击。它也唤醒了传统生产者,很多人开始第一次认真对待挑战。最后,它给了新世界生产者在全球市场上竞争的信心。简言之,它是为出口销售敲响了首轮钟。 • P6成熟的市场,改变的需求 “巴黎评论”向我们发出信号——在20世纪的最后时刻,红酒行业开始出现许多难以预料的变化。从1970年到1900年,传统制造红酒的全球需求量下降了20%,而后需求趋于扁平化。当结合消费者口味的变化,分销渠道的整合和政府支持的改变,这些趋势都代表着红酒企业面临着全新的机遇和挑战。
改变的全球需求模式
程度的消费下降出现在对红酒需求量最高的国家——法国和意大利。在20世纪60年代中期,这两个国家的人均年消费水平达到110-120公升;到2005年,已经下降到50公升。下降的主要原因是因为一些年轻群体的口味偏好发生变化,年长群体越来越重视健康问题,和更加严格的酒驾处罚。同时,不合理的需求下降同样出现在其它主要红酒消费国——西班牙,它的年消费水平从60公升下降到35公升,阿根廷从80到30,智利从50带13(详情见exhibiti3)。 在相同的时期内,许多红酒进口国的需求还是在上涨,尽管它的增长速度不足以弥补旧世界红酒生产国的损失。从1966年到2005年,英国的人均年消费从3公升上涨到20公升,比利时从10到26,加拿大从3到10公升。更多如愿的增长是出现在逐渐增加的新市场,尤其是在亚洲,比如中国、日本、台湾、韩国和泰国,它们的人年均消费额是在1990年的两倍。实际上,到2005年为止,中国已经成为世界上第五大葡萄酒消费国,排在西班牙,阿根廷和英国之前。(图4和5列出了世界上红酒的主要消费国和生产国)。就是这样的(需求)改变,让红酒的竞争市场进入了全球红酒战争时代。(见图6的出口和进口数据)
对质量要求的改变,时尚的兴起
部分增长的、抵消总量下降的需求是对高质量葡萄酒的需求。认为普通红酒价格(每瓶5美元)的占到世界消费市场的一半,高端红酒(每瓶5-7美元),超一流红酒(7到14美元),这样的价格段代表了40%的生产者的看法,同时超过50%的新市场例如美国,澳大利亚赞同这样的价格段。 这样的趋势是全球化的。甚至是在旧世界的红酒生产过,虽然它们的销售总量在下降,但是人们对于红酒的最低消费价格还是保持上升。尽管有政府的津贴,欧洲人们对普通红酒的需求量从1985年的31公升下跌到2005年18公升,同时,对高品质红酒的需求从10公升上升到15公升。在这20年里,美国的普通葡萄酒需求量从800百万下降到600百万公升,同时,高端红酒的消费量从150百万上升到600百万公升。 随着对质量要求的不断提高,更加巨大的时尚元素影响着需求。普通工薪家庭对于普通葡萄酒需求量的下降可以用对葡萄酒要求质优价高的城市消费者的消费来进行抵消。它们通过葡萄的种类,葡萄收获期和生产国和日益增长的时尚元素来选择葡萄酒。20世纪80年代对清淡饮食的推崇使得白葡萄酒的需求日益增加,让白葡萄酒汽水在美国市场上成为非常流行的饮料。在20世纪80年代末,白葡萄酒占到美国葡萄酒销量的75%。 P7但随着1991年出版的医学报告——确定红酒从一定程度来说是“法国悖论”——地中海国家居民获心脏病的几率低于美国人,原因是它们通过喝红酒摄入较多的类黄酮。美国的专栏节目在电视上就此播放了60分钟的视频,这个报告迅速让红酒的销量从1991年的27%在五年后上涨到43%。 在评定红酒和白葡萄酒孰优孰劣的过程中,人们对于葡萄品种选择也与流行时尚有一定的关系。在白葡萄酒兴起的时代,夏敦埃酒也是一种选择,但是到了20世纪90年代末,灰比诺和白苏维浓成为了白葡萄酒中最被人们喜爱的一种。至于红酒,在梅鹿汁小火了一把之后,人们又偏好卡百内红,它是在黑皮诺之后又一成功被很多人所喜欢的一种酒类。 但这样摇摆给生产者们带来了问题。虽然葡萄树能够产果60到70年,但是它们需要3-4年去产出它们的第一批果实,5-7年产出饱满的大数量的果实,35年才能产出顶尖质量的葡萄果实。但是新世界的产地能够保证产量和监管自由,在它们的新葡萄园里种植不同种类的葡萄树同时它们可以承担责任。举个例子,在1990年,加利福尼亚耕地上的莎当妮葡萄产量上涨了36%,梅乐产量上涨了31%。 随着不同需求上涨的趋势的延续,世界葡萄酒公司的等级划分经历了根本上的改变。尽管它们在新奇度上大同小异和它们只有相对较小的国内市场,新世界公司还是将世界顶级的15家红酒公司列出来,这个列表早先是由旧世界公司所控制的。(见图8)
逐渐增长的分配权力
因为市场一直以来都是由它们(新世界)操控,旧世界的生产者们一直被快速变化的消费者品味和市场趋势所孤立,尤其是当它们在远离国内的出口市场进行销售时。同样的,问题还出现在它们对日益集中的销售渠道缺乏理解。与此相反的是,因为很多大型新世界红酒公司控制了它们的销售过程——从它们的葡萄园到零售商,它们可以灵敏的感受到消费者的偏好变化并且能够通过分销渠道及时作出回应。 更多的,新世界公司可以通过它(上段所述)和减少处理步骤来获得经济优势,持有更少的存货,然后夺得中间商的利润。甚至运输经济,这个一度有利于欧洲供货商销售到美国市场的东西,也发生了改变。货车运输的费用增加了而集装箱装船的速度又下降了,这导致将葡萄酒从澳大利亚通过江海运输运到英国的费用将和用货车运到法国南部的费用相同。 因为需要一个集中的零售部门,规模同时也给了新世界公司在复杂的谈判阶段讨价还价的能力。举个例子,属于这个2000年时葡萄酒的生产过剩,澳大利亚的生产者用它们的成本优势让市场价格降低。同样重要的是,在大量销售的竞争中,它们必须有能力去回应零售商对于大品牌供货要求,即让价格和质量保持一个良好的比例。 旧世界供货商的问题从它们和特斯克一起解决后便开始变的明朗,特斯克是世界最大的酒类零售商,它在2007年创造了15亿的销售额。为了最大程度上的扩大销售额,特斯克强调它们想要和具有创造性的供货商合作。“不要只给我解决方案,我需要的是创新”,这位特斯克酒业,BEER,SPITIRS的部门首脑,DAN JAGO这么说到“如果你想要抬价,你必须要告诉消费者,为什么它们需要支付更多的钱。” P8当少数先锋模范用它们的想象力和质量在市场的顶端成功时,旧世界葡萄园的分裂导致它们只能够在销售低端产品。当它们可以选择在AOC的保护伞下去雇佣新世界的品牌,它们很快就发现它们缺少在中端市场生产的技能和资源。特斯克的JAGO说道,尽管旧世界曾红极一时,但是波尔多这个牌子已经失去了它们的年轻消费者。“上帝知道,我曾经试着去帮助它们,但是我们的消费者有着无数的选择,它们并不需要刻意让波尔多去成为众多选择中的一部分。”
具有优势的品牌力量
有好几年,葡萄酒行业出现了一些成熟的品牌。尤其是分裂的欧洲行业(仅仅波尔多就有20000的生产者)意味着几乎没有足够的数量去支持品牌策略。从历史上讲,就只有具有主导地位的生产者曾意识到品牌,比如拉菲,凯歌,伊昆宫等。但这些曾经出现的精英,都只代表了市场上的极小部分。 品牌是为了给消费者提供信心,政府支持的一些种类比如法国法定产区只是它们中部分成功的。它们的价值逐渐减弱的原因不仅是因为它们的复杂性(2009年有327个法定范围),还有因为消费者对它们的分类表逐渐失去信心,就和对它们的质量保证失去信心一样。 比如说勃垠第葡萄酒的葡萄园,chambertin,它仅仅32亩的地就拥有23个所有者。当高质量的葡萄酒拥有它的重要地位时,其它的酒类依靠它们的名声进行在150美元一瓶的价格销售。酒类评判家Robert parker这样评价这个带有合法标签的chambertin葡萄酒“力量薄弱,味道淡的,完全是宰人的货品” 除了那些受过葡萄酒教育的内行的人,高端葡萄酒有兴趣的人群都面临着上百种的葡萄酒但却没有足够的知识去选择。政府的葡萄酒分类表却要求它们对复杂的地区,种类,葡萄园名声进行了解,甚至当它们找到了一种自己喜欢的葡萄酒,却要等到下一次才可以购买,因为生产者们没有存货或者葡萄的成熟期还没有到。毫无意外的,20世纪90年代早期的数据显示65%的购买者在进了酒庄之后完全不知道自己应该买什么酒。 到了2009年,尽管做了许多尝试,没有一个品牌可以达到世界葡萄酒销量的1%,相反的,一些软饮料,啤酒和一些含酒精饮料的牌子反而占优势。虽然欧洲的生产者还有它们的进口代理商在1960年到1970年间创立了众多的品牌,十年之后,新世界的葡萄酒生产者们将制造品牌作为葡萄酒市场的一个常规进行了开展。举个例子,通过从多样的葡萄园和产地得到葡萄资源,澳大利亚的葡萄酒生产者Penfolds通过确保从vintage-to-vintage的连贯性让人们对它的产品产生了信任,而这正是品牌所需要的。然后它们利用其值得信赖的品牌对Penfold酒业的等级进行划分,让消费者可以根据它们的口味选择价格9美元到185美元的酒类,同时它们的收入也得到了发展。 那些在1960s到1970s期间,在母国市场建立了自己专业知识的新世界的生产者们知道怎么样去回应消费者的的喜好(更喜欢简单的,有果味驱动的葡萄酒),而这种葡萄酒,更容易被消费者喜欢。然后,它们将自己发展起来的酒,销售方式还有品牌进行出口。到2007年为止,新世界的公司宣称世界上20个葡萄酒品牌里有14个是它们的。(详见表10)
P9政府的解决对策
事实证明激进的需求变化挑战了旧世界的生产者们。首先,现在不再像以前一样有足够的新土地来种植葡萄,特别是在AOC(法定产酒区)的产地限定下。同样的,有限制的地方是规定的可生产的葡萄种类和葡萄酒制造技术限制了旧世界生产者们的生产灵活性。所以,举个例子,当流行切换到更甜的白葡萄酒身上时,德国的葡萄酒行业,这个拘泥于严格的糖分控制制度的生产商,眼看着它的出口量从1992年的超3百万百公升在五年后下降到低于2百万。 但是,最大的问题是国内下降的需求和在出口市场份额的丧失导致了葡萄酒的结构性盈余——通俗的叫做欧洲红酒河。欧盟的最初反应是支付农民离开它们的葡萄园,这样在1988年到1996年间,500000公顷(产量的13%)地便没有了产出。一个平行的“危机蒸馏程序”提供欧盟购买剩余红酒,然后将它们制造曾行业酒精。从1999年开始,每年平均减少2600万百公升(产量的15%)。在2006年的一个改革建议中,欧盟提出要再减少20万百公顷,这和美国的红酒产业面积相等,并且逐步淘汰了危机蒸馏。 批评者认为,尽管欧盟的动机是走向以市场为导向的政策,但是它们却还是从供给的角度(葡萄种植者)出发来应对挑战。在解决市场支持,红酒的风格,追求和思想的创新方面,又或者说旧世界葡萄酒公司在商业模式方面几乎没有成功做到的地方。 然而,新世界的葡萄酒公司也同样面对着挑战。在几个主要的出口国家,由于新市场饱和的迹象,全球红酒生产过剩的问题变得更加严重。举个例子,在2003年以后,澳大利亚出口到它的主进口国——英国的价值不到总销量的一半。到了2005年,当它的在英国的平均价格下降了4.4%,出口的总量缺只缓慢的增加了1.6%。同样还有别的证据证明新世界的酒类还在因为它们在生产过剩的时代想要降低价格而产生一些问题。现在对它们来说的挑战就是重新建立概念,然后从低价段的竞争中退出来。 • 美国市场的战争 由于生产国长期的生产过剩和成熟市场的需求下降,新旧世界又在2008年的33%的出口需求份额中开展了竞争。现在竞争又更激烈的在美国市场展开,美国市场被称为“可能是世界上最具有吸引力的市场”。
美国市场
美国市场为什么如此具有吸引力的原因显而易见。在德国这个世界上最大的红酒进口国,65%的市场需求的是售价2欧元一瓶的普通红酒。作为第二大的红酒进口国,英国提供了一个更具有吸引力的市场(57%的需求是在3欧到5欧之间),但是它现在也有饱和的趋势。但是作为第三大的进口国,美国市场的需求增长速度大过任何一个主要的红酒市场——从1993年的110亿到2007年的300亿。更好的是,它的销售增长率是销售额增长的4倍。这呈现给我们一个事实,那就是售价5欧元(7美元)的葡萄酒拥有市场48%的消费者,而且这个层次的消费者将会以每年15%的增长速度增加,是低端红酒消费者的增长率的3倍。 尽管如此,美国市场曾经是一个非常难被打开的进口市场,因为它和其它生产国的距离非常远,其各州的监管限制和它复杂的三层分配系统导致所有出口商都需要获得国家授权。这不仅导致出口者的成本增加,还让其它强牌惊慌。(出口上中最大的两家酒业Southern 和 Spirit的销售量是世界是最大的就业Consolation Brand 的两倍)。但是2005年最高法院裁定允许州与州之间红酒的运输,引发一系列的州和联邦法规的改变打开了美国的分配制度。最后,这个最大的进入壁垒就慢慢消除了。 P10美国市场的兴起的重要原因是因为80后,它们喜欢红酒的程度要远远多于出生于70年代的美国人。这些新的消费是不仅对价格非常敏感,同时精通于互联网,并且善于理财 。考虑到美国市场的原因也是因为它们和以前的美国人相比,有更多的人会选择进口葡萄酒。 并不意外,在黄金时代的前十年,美国成为了一个主要的出口竞争地。尽管它们有个成功的国内红酒生产行业,美国红酒的进口量还是从1995到2006年间增长了185%,它们声称这个记录占了市场份额的31%。很快,旧世界和新世界的领头羊进行了正面交锋——美国要人对这三个占77%进口量的国家的进行抗争以保护它们的国内市场:意大利,法国和澳大利亚。这成为了世界红酒大战的一个缩影。
美国市场自身保卫战
一些行业评论家提出由于美国生产者长时期的将注意力放在它们的大规模和高定价的国内市场,它们已经落后于全球的质量/价格比,它们不仅处于低端领域,甚至还处于高价位。一个能够让它们崛起的办法是通过比较分析比较所有2004年份赤霞珠葡萄酒的价格,实现90年罗伯特•帕克葡萄酒爱好者评级。加州葡萄酒的均价是55美元,而相同等级的澳大利亚葡萄酒的价格却只用20美元。 自从成为一个高成本的生产者以来,美国的葡萄酒行业认识到它们需要应对新的具有竞争性的挑战。最大的问题之一就是它们的土地成本实在太高。在2008年,在Napa每英亩土地的平均价格需要花费150000美元,是澳大利亚葡萄园价格的10倍有余,是智利土地价格的20倍。更多的是,事实上在Napa已经没有其它可用来扩展的土地,也没有其它的优质葡萄酒土地。而因为控制非法移民的增加也导致了劳动力成本被挤压(成本增加)。2008年,Napa每英亩的土地修剪价格是350美元,这个价格和法国差不多,但是远远高于高度机械化生产的澳大利亚(每英亩120美元)和低劳动力成本的智利(每英亩75美元)。 因为它们的高成本,北海岸地区比如Napa和Sonoma的葡萄园将葡萄酒定位于超一流和超纯的层次——价格高于12美元/瓶或者更高。同时,Central Valley这个占加利福尼亚州葡萄酒销量70%的公司,瞄准于低端层次的葡萄酒,这种葡萄酒以Gallo’s Carlo Rossi牌为代表。由于2002年的市场生产过剩及其以后,在现货市场上购买的剩余的葡萄酒造就了一个新的品牌“two buck chuck”(两美元),因为它的售价为1.99美元/瓶。很快,它的年销售总量就达到了500万。 这个分支集中导致市场的中间段(5-8美元/瓶)缺医少药。Yellow-tail这种酒进入了这个空隙,它是从澳大利亚进口的时尚标签,同时是美国人更加偏好的浓郁的果酒。很快,它的全球年销量便达到了1000万。因为美国市场没有及时相应国内市场需求的能力,美国的酿酒厂只能让人意想不到的来源——从低成本生产国进口葡萄酒,这个事情的发展我们将会在下面进行描述。
P11欧洲的新进步
随着欧盟农业政策把重点从减少供应过剩调整为用于补助市场营销和促销,欧洲的葡萄酒在美国的市场份额开始增加。最后,在经历了多年对新世界竞争者的打击使他们撤退后,主要的欧盟葡萄酒出口国可以吹嘘他们掌握了美国2006年 99%的进口葡萄酒销售所带来的美元增长量。 随着澳大利亚人冲进最受欢迎的高端市场,法国葡萄酒扩展渗透到超高端市场。尽管进口量排名第三,但是法国在进口价值量方面打败了所有国家。每瓶价格高于所有进口葡萄酒平均水平的77%,反映其在包括香槟在内的奢侈品行业中的强势地位。与此相反的是,意大利进口的增长主要在受欢迎的价格范围内,这是他们历史性的优势。这促进了一些知名品牌如Riunite, Cavit and Bolla,他们增加其 2006 年的销量,达到了 20 亿箱,从而保持其作为最大进口国的地位。 但讽刺的是,欧洲进口的成功也得益于美国国内的生产商。当他们销售范围变得更全球化时,很多美国葡萄酒公司开始剥夺葡萄园,扩大其市场营销的作用。国外的葡萄酒供应商,得益于这两种方式的转变。第一,国内企业利用法律规定的最多只允许 25%的外国葡萄酒产品被贴上美国酒的标签后,进口品变成了大量廉价的需要混合的酒的来源。国内公司通过进口和销售国家特定的葡萄酒来扩大他们的销售线路,国外供应商也从中受益。。Gallo特别擅长这种策略,并成功地推出了如Bella Sera 和 Ecco Domani这类葡萄酒来源于意大利的品牌,还有Red Bicyclette,这个法国进口酒品牌。从本质上说,美国公司用市场营销能力和销售经验填补了这片以前是许多欧洲进口准入门槛的空白。
澳大利亚的新挑战
十几年来,澳大利亚的葡萄酒生产商已经习惯了成功。1996 年,行业的" Strategy 2025"计划详细说明了将"完全致力于创新和风格"作为其手段而成为"2025年世界上最有影响力和最赚钱的品牌葡萄酒供应商。"十年后,葡萄生产增加一倍以上,并且出口已经增长了 530%,在2006年达到了782百万公升。这使得澳大利亚成为世界上第四大葡萄酒出口国。事实上,到2006年大部分Strategy 2025"的目标已经实现,比原计划提前近 20 年。 但在 2000 年代中期得到公认后,这场庆典就受到了打击,澳大利亚向其最大的市场——英国的出口停滞不前,平均价格也受到了冲击。幸运的是,美国市场增长迅速,并且在2007 年,相比英国市场的 33%,美国市场占有澳大利亚的葡萄酒出口市场总值的31%。但与平均价格已下跌至 3.35 美元的英国市场相比,以平均价格为每升 4.46 美元向澳大利亚进口的美国市场更具吸引力。 但澳大利亚葡萄酒也面临着在美国市场的价格和形象问题。自 2000 年以来,受到生产过剩的影响,2004年、 2005 年和 2006 年的大丰收导致了澳大利亚生产商恶意的降低所有出口市场的价格。而这也导致了出口销售激增,同时澳大利亚葡萄酒形象也被建立为"廉价和畅饮的"。这类形象的典型就是Yellow Tail。在 2007 年,这个非常成功的品牌向美国销售了 810 万箱葡萄酒,占所有澳大利亚进口的36%。 随着成本开始上升,澳大利亚为形象所困成为了一个特别的问题。严重的干旱导致澳大利亚水资源方面的成本不断上升,与此同时,全球能源价格的飙升。在这些因素的共同作用下,澳大利亚的生产成本上升到每公吨将近200 元,这也迫使澳大利亚生产商认识到,无论他们的效率有多高,阿根廷和智利生产商的成本始终更低。例如,当澳大利亚可以向美国提供的佐餐酒为每公升$0.80 ,而阿根廷的价格是每公升$0.36。 P12和其他国家一样,阿根廷和智利已经学习到了澳大利亚成功的秘诀,并且复制了其成功的战略来发展在一致品牌下销售的他们自己可以进入的葡萄酒领域。例如,Concha y Toro 是世界上第四大葡萄酒品牌,, 排名超过了Gallo 和Yellow Tail,。即使新兴的新世界生产商不能发挥必要的营销技巧,但越来越多的全球葡萄酒公司可能会弥补那些不足。例如,在2007 年,在美国市场上销售新葡萄酒最多的是流行的优质南非品牌Sebeka — — 由Gallo负责来源、 包装、 品牌,和销售。总之,澳大利亚在美国的竞争地位受到严重挑战。 • 敌后战场: 在法国和澳大利亚的战略 澳大利亚出口葡萄酒虽然有着十年成功的支撑,但也受近期平均价格弱势的影响,澳大利亚葡萄酒和白兰地公司,政府的主要葡萄酒出口机构与澳大利亚产业主导的酿酒师联邦会联合制订一个新的战略以支持该行业的持续增长。在“Directions to 2025标题之下,该文档详细说明了行业该如何落实第二阶段具有里程碑意义的“2025战略”强调了到 2002 年销售量的增长和到2015年价值量的增长以及到 2025 年实现全球卓越的澳大利亚葡萄酒。 在澳大利亚葡萄酒的广阔平台上,"2025 年方向"计划支持四个子品牌,每一个都针对不同的消费群。"Brand Champions"将包括所有可能的优质品牌葡萄酒,促进享受的舒适度 ;"Generation Next"将强调年轻消费者重视的创新,他们倾向于将葡萄酒和社交场合联系起来而不是葡萄本身的特性。"Regional Heroes"将建立一个关于澳大利亚各个地区和不同种类或风格的葡萄酒酒品种的协会。"Landmark Australia将支持澳大利亚高期望的葡萄酒并保护其一流的世界声誉。(图11显示了品牌特质的分布)。 但2008年超出去年32%的巨大冲击让很多人认为最近干旱引起的产量缩水已经结束了。业内人士都担心,随着供应增加,生产者会放弃长期战略而转回他们早期的价格战,特别是流行品牌可能会大量生产以减少多余的库存。澳大利亚葡萄酒使得icon Wolf Blass 在他所谓的"错误的方法"上丧失了信心。他觉得澳洲红酒不能长期在低成本的战役中竞争,并辩称出口企业应着眼于能提升他们形象的具有浓郁高品质的葡萄酒。2013年预测将会有7%的水果供应过剩,而这将会是产业中真正的挑战。 与此同时,在法国,业界内和政府都做出了不同的行动来应对全球盈余。2005 年,带领者Comite d’Action Viticole(CAV) 发起了针对进口的暴力运动,阻断了公路,推翻了装有外国酒的卡车。在随后与首相的会议中,酿酒商联合会保证他们将支持国家战略去帮助法国红酒夺回失去的市场。这项计划得到了€9000 万的资金支持,这些资金直接用于支持法国葡萄酒酿酒厂在经济上的困难并且保证法国葡萄酒将重新进入世界市场。此外,一个新的国际葡萄酒委员会将复杂的红酒分级系统简化,也许会变得更大,更简单,更区域化,例如Bordeaux or Burgundy。最后,总理命令农业部长去布鲁塞尔争取更多的资金来把产业过剩的葡萄酒蒸馏成工业酒精。 但欧盟正在朝着不同的方向行动。2007 年,它宣布了更有效地利用其每年度 €1.3亿的葡萄酒预算的计划。这将会结束每年用€5亿元回购未出售的酒,而将这些资金重新转变为新的激励措施,鼓励农民根除200,000 公顷的葡萄园,并每年为市场营销活动提供€1 亿 2000 万。这项计划在农民中并不受欢迎。尽管他们不断反对,但欧盟计划仍然通过了后,抗议活动进一步升级了。在法国,CAV 声称在他们将对超级市场大量售卖的进口葡萄酒负责,特别是在法国南部具有高生产力的Languedoc-Roussillon 葡萄酒地区。然后,五名男子出现在法国电视上威胁,除非葡萄酒的价格上升,否则将会有更多的暴力活动。 大多数业内人士的认为这种行动是无益的,并且破坏了他们的营销努力。他们力劝酿酒师去支持为"法国南部"葡萄酒的新的促销活动,该活动由政府和业界提供了€2000 万的资金支持。来自不同的 AOC、 VDQS 和 Vin de Pay地区生产商以一种不同寻常的方式显示出他们的团结,他们都同意向市场推出产品在这面共同的旗帜下。虽然有些人认为这是唯一与强大的新世界葡萄酒品牌竞争的机会,有人担心,"South of France品牌太普通,不能显示出该地区葡萄酒来源的丰富多样。但在出口市场争夺战中,每个人都意识到必须要做些什么才行。

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...increasingly global wine industry for centuries? What sources of competitive advantage were they able to develop? Where were they vulnerable? By the Christian era, wine became part of the liturgical services and monasteries planted vines and built wineries and the European nobility began planting vineyards as a symbol of prestige, competing in quality of wine they serve on their table, i.e. start of premium wine market. French wine producers became the dominant competitor as a result of four reasons. First, their geographic and climatic features played significant role. As France is in the middle of Europe culture with suitable climate and soil condition for harvesting grape, had accrued first-mover advantage and established its place as the dominant competitor in the global wine industry. Second, they became the first high-quality wine market and gained a lot experience. Especially, the negociants traded wine between France and other countries and this worked as word-of-mouth effect, increasing the reputation and dominance of French wine. Third, they used the latest innovations such as mass production of glass bottles, the use of cork stoppers and pasteurization. These innovations increased the stability and longevity of wine which allowed the transportation of wine to distant places, and birth of global wine market. Lastly, the government support made significant effect on the reputation and improvement of French wine industry. Government controlled the wine production and quality...

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...Global Wine Wars 2009: New World versus Old World Executive Summary The concept of wine-making was originally an art dominated by several European countries, mainly amongst the noble class, competing against one another for the highest quality wines. Traditionally set in their ways, from their methods of planting, to harvesting, to marketing channels and their consumers, the “Old World” wine-makers were unprepared for what was ahead of them as the “New World” growers joined in the struggle to appeal to the tastes of their consumers. As the New World began gaining ground, a rivalry arose between the New and Old Worlds - the Old World set on its traditional ways which had been in practice for centuries, while the New World focused around maximization of crops and harvesting, as well as marketing to the changing consumer preferences - leaving the Old World in awe as the New World took over in sales and imports. With a shifting of palates and an economic recession which hit not only the consumers’ wallets, but also the growers’ vineyards, a continuous battle for leader in U.S. imports emerged as the preference for premium wines increased, leaving the U.S. out to dry with their high prices due to inherent domestic costs. Meanwhile, Australia and France were able to tap into the premium and super premium markets, respectively. Since Australia had already taken charge of U.S. imports in the middle segment with their Yellow Tail brand, their entrance into the premium market...

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...How did the French become the dominant competitors in the increasingly global wine industry for centuries? What sources of competitive advantage were they able to develop to support their exports? Where were they vulnerable? “By the Christian era, wine became part of the liturgical services, and monasteries planted vines and built wineries. By the Middle Ages, the European nobility began planting vineyards as a mark of prestige, competing with one another in the quality of wine served at their tables – the first niche market for premium wine.” The French were the dominant competitors in an increasing global market because they believed in the same old tradition that brought so many of their ancestors’ success years prior. Many consumers preferred the taste and sophistication of a bottle of pure wine from a native land. To support their exports the French stuck by their plan of maintaining an old fashioned brand that was simplistic but full of quality. Consumers who drank aged wine originating from France considered themselves above normal society, in a class above the commoner. A medical publication supporting that French red wines helped promote low rates of heart disease certainly did not hurt either. French wine producers had several sources of competitive advantage beginning with their geographic and climatic features. This played significant role with France at the center of European culture with suitable climate and soil condition for harvesting grape, leading to first-mover...

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...9-910-405 AUGUST 13, 2009 CHRISTOPHER A. BARTLETT Global Wine War 2009: New World versus Old “We have the people, expertise, technology and commitment to gain global preeminence for Australian wine by 2025. It will come by anticipating the market, influencing consumer demand, and building on our strategy of sustainable growth.” — Sam Toley, CEO of Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation. “By phasing out the buyback of excess wine and increasing incentives for farmers to uproot their vines, the EC reforms will only bring in the New World’s agro-industry model. We need to protect the age-old European model built on traditional vineyards.” — Jean-Louis Piton, Copa-Cogeca Farmers Association. In 2009, these two views reflected some of the very different sentiments unleashed by the fierce competitive battle raging between traditional wine makers and some new industry players as they fought for a share of the $230 billion global wine market. Many Old World wine producers—France, Italy, and Spain, for example—found themselves constrained by embedded wine-making traditions, restrictive industry regulations, and complex national and European Community legislation. This provided an opportunity for New World wine companies—from Australia, the United States, and Chile, for instance—to challenge the more established Old World producers by introducing innovations at every stage of the value chain. In the Beginning1 Grape growing and wine making have been human preoccupations at least since the...

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...Global Wine War Case Analysis The global wine war has taken many turns since the 17th century. The largest impact was the immergence of New World wine makers. The largest disadvantages the Old World wine makers battled were the strict government classifications and controls. These rules prevented them from being able to become more efficient, innovative, and different. Before the New World entered the global wine industry, Europe dominated the industry. France became a dominant competitor for centuries because of its existing sources of competitive advantages and the advantages they were able to develop over time. France’s strong wine production and culture took root centuries ago. By the Christian era, wine became part of the liturgical services and monasteries planted vines and built wineries. The European nobility began planting vineyards as a symbol of prestige and competed in the quality of wine they served on their table; this was the start of the premium wine market. French wine producers became the dominant competitor as a result of many reasons. Their geographic and climatic features played a significant role. France is located in an area that has a suitable climate and soil condition for harvesting grapes. They also became the first high-quality wine market and gained a lot of experience for their huge domestic market. They used the latest innovations, which included mass production of glass bottles, the use of cork stoppers and pasteurization. These innovations...

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...dominant competitor in the global wine industry due to the low effect of the five forces of competition. The main barriers to entry that kept the threat of competitors low for the French were incumbency advantages, unequal access to distribution channels and restrictive government policies. This first barrier, incumbency advantages, can be explained by the domestic French Wine Industry in the late 18th to mid 19th century that was already supporting 1.5 million families for both the growing of grapes and other wine-related businesses. France already had a domestic market for the growth and cultivation of vineyards that was able to provide French producers with a steady supply of agricultural inputs. Secondly, France possessed a domestic distribution system that created the second barrier to entry for competitors, unequal access to distribution channels. Their domestic market already utilized a distribution system by selling wine in bulk to merchant traders called negociants who would blend and bottle wine before distribution. With advances in both bottling and pasteurization allowing for long distance transportation of wine, France was in a premier spot to take advantage of exporting wine. Finally, as the wine industry continued to grow, the French Government created new barriers to entry by implementing a classification system that greatly benefited the French. This barrier to entry, restrictive government policies, allowed French wines to differentiate their product allowing...

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