...multiple allele n. Any of a set of three or more alleles, or alternative states of a gene, only two of which can be present in a diploid organism. Allele Jump to: navigation, search An allele (UK /ˈæliːl/ or US /əˈliːl/), or allel, is one of a number of alternative forms of the same gene or same genetic locus (generally a group of genes).[1][2] It is the alternative form of a gene for a character producing different effects. Sometimes, different alleles can result in different observable phenotypic traits, such as different pigmentation. However, many variations at the genetic level result in little or no observable variation. Most multicellular organisms have two sets of chromosomes, that is, they are diploid. These chromosomes are referred to as homologous chromosomes. Diploid organisms have one copy of each gene (and therefore one allele) on each chromosome. If both alleles are the same, they are homozygotes. If the alleles are different, they are heterozygotes. A population or species of organisms typically includes multiple alleles at each locus among various individuals. Allelic variation at a locus is measurable as the number of alleles (polymorphism) present, or the proportion of heterozygotes in the population. For example, at the gene locus for the ABO blood type carbohydrate antigens in humans,[3] classical genetics recognizes three alleles, IA, IB, and IO, that determine compatibility of blood transfusions. Any individual has one of six possible genotypes (AA, AO...
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...assessment of morphological and floral traits in plants grown to maturity, which locks up the capital while awaiting the results for GOT. GOT could be replaced with DNA based assays. The present investigation was undertaken with an objective to identify distinguishable microsatellite markers to establish fingerprinting of rice (Oryza sativa L.) hybrids, assessing variation within parental lines and testing the genetic purity of hybrid seed develpod by JNKVV Jabalpur, 4 cms, 4 restores and 5 hybrids were employed in this study. About 52 most informative microsatellite markers were employed for fingerprinting five rice hybrids and their parental lines. A total of 77 alleles were detected, and the number of alleles per locus ranged from 1 to 6, with an average of 2.56±1.33 primer pair. Eleven markers amplified specific alleles those separated the male from female lines. 13 markers were found polymorphic for female lines. Marker RM 164 clearly differentiates all the 4 CMS lines under study. 24 markers were found polymorphic among the male parents. No such marker was found that could differentiate all the male lines from each other. Polymorphic marker between the male and the female parent of respective hybrid were used for hybridity and genetic purity testing.SSR marker combinations that were unique to a particular parental or hybrid were identified which can detect impurities in seed lots of the hybrids. Key words: micro-satellite markers, genetic purity, Fingerprinting, GOT, rice...
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...Chapter 1. introduction to physical anthropology Adaptation – An anatomical, physiological or behavioral response of organisms or populations to the environment. Anthropology – The study of human culture and evolutionary aspects of human biology that includes: cultural, archeology and physical or biological anthropology. Applied anthropology – the practical application of anthropological and archeological theories and techniques. Artifacts – Objects or materials made or modified for use by modern humans and their ancestors. Biocultural evolution – The mutual interactive evolution of human biology and culture. The concept that biology makes culture further influences the direction of biological evolution. Bipedally – on two feet walking habitually on 2 legs. Culture – behavioral aspects of adaptation including technology, traditions, language religion, marriage. Data – Facts from which conclusions can be drawn scientific information. Empirical – relying on experiment or observation. Ethnographies – Detailed descriptive studies of human societies – ugsaatnii zui Ethnocentrism – Viewing other cultures from the inherently biased perspective of one’s own culture – undestnii deerengui uzel Evolution – A change in the genetic structure of a population. The term is also frequently used to refer to the appearance of a new species. Forensic anthropology – An applied anthropological approach that deals with legal matters. Forensic anthropologists work with coroners, police...
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...Chapter 14 Mendel and the Gene Idea Lecture Outline Overview • Every day we observe heritable variations (such as brown, green, or blue eyes) among individuals in a population. • These traits are transmitted from parents to offspring. • One possible explanation for heredity is a “blending” hypothesis. ° This hypothesis proposes that genetic material contributed by each parent mixes in a manner analogous to the way blue and yellow paints blend to make green. ° With blending inheritance, a freely mating population will eventually give rise to a uniform population of individuals. ° Everyday observations and the results of breeding experiments tell us that heritable traits do not blend to become uniform. • An alternative model, “particulate” inheritance, proposes that parents pass on discrete heritable units, genes, that retain their separate identities in offspring. ° Genes can be sorted and passed on, generation after generation, in undiluted form. • Modern genetics began in an abbey garden, where a monk named Gregor Mendel documented a particulate mechanism of inheritance. A. Gregor Mendel’s Discoveries 1. Mendel brought an experimental and quantitative approach to genetics. • Mendel discovered the basic principles of heredity by breeding garden peas in carefully planned experiments. • Mendel grew up on a small farm in what is today the Czech Republic. • In 1843, Mendel entered an Augustinian monastery. • He...
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...pink purple? ¼ Tomatoes red dom to white dark green incompletely dom to light green fruit and leaf color loci not linked. Red tomato medium green leaves x white tomato and out of progeny 100 plants two white. Plant then crossed to dithered. What fraction of progeny have white fruit and leaves not dark green? 3/16 Ferrets sing. Rec allele g sing G snort. Incompletely dominant alleles for dark rown and blond are also found in the species. Two loci segregate independently of each other. Singing light brown ferrets mate with snorting dark brown with singing mothers (gg Brbr x Gg BrBr. Expected phenotypic ratio? 9/16 sidabr:3/16silibr:3/16sndabr:1/16 snlibr Lucy int in butterflies X vulgaris. Rip rec lethal to relative to the wild type allele. Esp phen ratio of cross btw X vulgaris gen +rip X +rip if the alleles segregate independently? 3:1 Spotted rabbit x with a solid colored rabbit produced all spotted offspring. F1 generation rabbits x among themselves, they produced 32 spotted and 10 solid. What were the gen of F1? SS x ss Horses black dependant upon dom gene B chesnut upon rec b. trotting gait due to dom gene T pacing gait to rec allele t. Homozygous black pacer x chesnut trotter what is appearance of F1? Black trotters Located on X chrom of a cat is a gene that codes for deafness. This gene rec. Fem cat heteroz for deafness x male not deaf. Penotype of offspring? ¼ deaf fem, ¼ hearing fem, ¼ deaf males, ¼ hearing males Cocker Spaniels gen: AABB=white A_bb=red...
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...There was two viewpoints of heredity which where blending and particulate hypothesis. The blending hypothesis didn’t work when the father of evolution, Charles Darwin did not have enough evidence. The particulate hypothesis was then discovered by Gregor Mendel. This video also breaks down the meaning of genes and traits. You have different characteristics for genes and traits such a height, weight, and appearance. It then goes to tell us about the advantages Mendel had with us pea plants in his study. From the hybridization experiments, he induced two generalizations which later became known as Mendel's Principles of Heredity or Mendelian inheritance. The speaker of this video also proceeds to talk about alleles, which are known as variation of different genes. Most alleles are represented as the dominant trait. Mendel’s Principle of Dominance says that the dominant form of a trait shows up in individuals that are heterozygous. The genotype is the genetic make- up of a certain gene. The phenotype is the physical characteristic of a gene. The genotype and phenotypes are both represented in ratios. In the second part of this video it introduces the term molecular genetics, which is basically studying of the chemical make-up of the chromosomes and its...
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...substitution, in which a point mutation codes for a stop codon, produces only a part of the factor and then cuts it off, resulting in severe hemophilia. A missense substitution, in which a point mutation causes a different amino acid to be added to the protein, produces a defective protein, causing mild to moderate hemophilia. Hemophilia is a sex-linked disorder. The hemophilia allele is recessive and rare, affecting 1/5000 live births. Since males have only one X chromosome, they only need one recessive allele to have hemophilia, whereas women need two (one from each each parent). Consequently, the disorder is more frequent in males. Females who are heterozygous at this locus, or carriers (one in 2500 females), pass on the recessive allele without being affected by it much themselves. This is one reason natural selection doesn’t remove the recessive allele from the human population. In those where the recessive alleles produce no clotting factor, heterozygotes produce only half the normal amount of the clotting factor, thus categorizing the dominant allele as incompletely dominant. In those where the recessive alleles produce defective clotting factor, heterozygotes produce both...
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...CHAPTER 6 POPULATION GENETICS SELECTION 1. Which of the following options factually completes the statement, "If a population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium..."? a. There can be no more than two alleles. b. The two alleles will be present at equal frequency. c. Allele frequencies will not change from one generation to the next. d. The dominant allele will be more common. |Correct Answer: |C, Allele frequencies will not change from one generation to the next. | [pic] 2. If allele frequencies do not change from one generation to the next, is the population definitely in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? Why or why not? No, it might not be in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. Any process that selectively targets heterozygotes can affect genotype frequencies without necessarily changing allele frequencies in the next generation. Examples are nonrandom mating, overdominance, and underdominance. [pic] 3. The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium principle yields which of the following conclusions? a. If the allele frequencies in a population are given by p and q, the genotype frequencies are given by p2, 2 pq and q2. b. The allele frequencies in a population will not change over time. c. If the allele frequencies in a population are given by p and q, the genotype frequencies are given by p2 and q2. d. The first and third answers are correct. e. The first and second choices are correct. |Correct Answer:...
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...uture evolutionary potential of the entire species (Pearse & Avise 2001; Avise et al. 2002; Frankham et al. 2002; Rowe & Hutchings 2003). Given that the current level of shark exploitation worldwide is far exceeding the reproductive capacity of many species and resulting in serious declines in some populations (Manire & Gruber 1990; Baum et al. 2003; Myers & Worm 2003), development of urgently needed and effective conservation measures will benefit from a more thorough understanding of shark mating systems. Field observations suggest that group reproductive behaviour and polyandrous copulations by females in a single mating event may be common in some sharks and batoids (Carrier et al. 1994; Yano et al. 1999; Pratt & Carrier 2001; Chapman et al. 2003). Several species of requiem and hammerhead sharks (families Carcharhinidae and Sphyrnidae, respectively) are also known to store sperm for several months after copulation, raising the possibility that viable sperm from multiple males can accumulate over a protracted mating season and be available for delayed fertilization (Pratt 1993; Manire et al. 1995). Despite these life-history strategies that might seem conducive to multiple paternity, the latter has been documented in only two shark species, the lemon Negaprion brevirostris and nurse shark Ginglymostoma cirratum. In both these cases, the study animals were from small populations (< 100 breeding animals) and sampled from a single location from insular breeding grounds in the...
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...produce many generations in a short period of time. This species of corn also has traits that affect the seed colour and other traits that can be seen early in development, which can be easily documented when assessing how a gene is inherited. The genome of this species has been sequenced many times and is very well understood. This enables experimenters to better control the genotypes of the parent plants. Write out the alleles for each gene, describe the phenotype and give the location for each gene: The genes used in this experiment affect height and colour. The plants will either be tall or dwarf and white or green. The genes used are described below in Table 1. The genes tested in this cross are w2 and d5. Locus Location Mutant Phenotype Wild Phenotype d5 9S-62 dwarf normal height lw2 5L-50 white seedling green seedling Table 1. Display of the Phenotypes, Genotypes and Loci for each gene of the Corn Cross. This shows what the possible phenotypes are for the cross and the locus and location of each gene being tested. The alleles for each gene in the cross are as follows: lw2: recessive, white seedling Lw2: dominant, green seedling D5: dominant, tall d5: recessive short Briefly state what the corn cross was, both genotypically and phenotypically. What are the phenotypes and genotypes of the parents. The cross is between two heterozygotes and the P0 generation genotypes were d5d5...
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...symbolizes the base pairs and the railings, and sides illustrate the bonding between the phosophate and deoxyribose molecules. Essentially DNA is one of the main building blocks of an organisms life. It has a chemical signature made up of four different chemical bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and Thymine (T). Furthermore, "human DNA consists of more than 3 billion bases, and more than 99 percent of those bases are the same in all people." (www.ghr.nlm.nih.gov) How does an organism’s genotype determine its phenotype? The genotype is the mixture of alleles. Alleles are alternative forms of the same gene that occupy the same location on a chromosome. "At any given locus (the specific site of a particular gene) there are two alleles (one on each chromosome in the pair) a human gets one allele from each parent." (www.sciencelearn.org) In relation to the nature of the genes and the kinds of alleles, a particular trait will be shown (phenotype). "Gene expression can be established by simple dominance, co-dominance, partial dominance or polygenic inheritance. Every instance will show particular traits in various means." (www.sciencelearn.org). Describe each stage of the flow of information starting with DNA and ending with a trait. "DNA nucleotide bases consist of a particular code. Specific strands of this code are termed genes." (Simon, Reece, & Dickey 2010) Genes code for particular proteins which ends in specific trait expression. Here is how it...
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...*Q: What is Evolution? - Descent from modification * Macro Evolution (Large Scale Evolution) * Common Ancestor - descent of different species over many generations * OVER LARGER TIMESCALE (ex. Speciation) * Micro Evolution (Small Scale Evolution) * Changes in gene (allele) frequency in population from one generation to the next * May be over shorter time period (generations) * BOTH OF THESE IMPLY: * 1. Common Ancestry * 2. Changes through time *Natural selection occurs when 3 conditions are met; results in evolution * 1. There is variation in a trait * (Ex. Beetle color) * 2. The trait is heritable * (Ex. Brown beetles tends to have brown babies) * 3. There is differential reproductive success, and not all individuals reproduce to their full potential * (Ex. Green beetles are selected against by natural and Brown beetles are selected for- so they reproduce more) *Adaption: A trait that increases the ability of an individual to survive and reproduce compared with individuals without the trait Adaption in an evolutionary context: An inherited trait that makes an organism more fit in its abiotic and biotic environment, and that has arisen as a result of the direct action of natural selection for its primary function. Ex. Mimicry of the non-toxic king snake to evade predators Natural selection leads to Adaptions * Adjustments or changes In behavior, physiology...
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...somatic cell- all the diploid body cells of an animal that are not involved in a gamete formation. gametic cell- a cell that fuses with another cell during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually, homologous chromosome , sister chromatid, karyotype, autosome and sex chromosome. How many chromosomes are in a human somatic cell? 46 How many homologous chromosome pairs are in a human somatic cell? 22 How many chromosomes are in a human gamete? 23 How many homologous chromosome pairs are in a human gamete (trick question)? 46 Which stage of the human life cycle is diploid (2n)? Which is haploid (n)? Which processes form the transition from haploid to diploid and diploid to haploid? Meiosis- The goal of meiosis is to produce four haploid gametes from one diploid somatic cell. This occurs through two cell divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II. Interphase - as in mitosis, the DNA content of the cell doubles from 2n to 4n. Meiosis I- Prophase I. DNA supercoils, tetrads form and crossing over occurs between maternal and paternal homologous chromosomes. Metaphase I. Homologous chromosome pairs line up along the equator of the cell in stacks instead of end to end. The random alignment of the homologous chromosomes during metaphase I is known as independent assortment. Anaphase I. Homologous chromosome pairs separate toward opposite poles of the cell. Nondisjunction can occur at this stage. Telophase I/cytokinesis. Nuclei reform in each of the two daughter cells as the mother cell...
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...sequences of 2000 Thai individuals. Before I use those data, for the first part I got to processing and quality control of FASTQ format, and second part I will create newly assembly by joining of many short reads. After that, I got to annotate and map for detected variants using characteristics such as allele frequency, location in the genome, and then classifying and prioritizing the detected variants based on those annotations. After I finish analyzing FASTQ data, I have data from FASTQ format and positions of SNP on a hg19, and then I systematize both data together in my database such as relationship between genes on a chromosome or SNP variant on gene. For the next part, I will create web page...
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...Unit II: Genetics Brief Overview Reading: Chapters 3, 4, 9-12, 14 (Note: you have reviewed much of this already) The earth is teeming with living things. We can easily see some of the larger organisms—trees, grass, flowers, weeds, cats, fish, squirrels, dogs, insects, spiders, snails, mushrooms, lichens. Other organisms are everywhere, in the air, in water, soil and on our skin, but are too small to see with the naked eye—bacteria, viruses, protists (single celled eukaryotes such as amoebae), and tiny plants and animals. Life is remarkable in its complexity and diversity, and yet it all boils down to a very simple idea—the instructions for making all this life are written in nucleic acids, usually DNA. Most organisms have a set of DNA that contains the instructions for making that creature. This DNA contains four “letters” in which these instructions are written—A, T, G, and C. The only difference between the code for a dog and the code for a geranium is in the order of those letters in the code. If you took the DNA from a human and rearranged the letters in the right way, you could produce an oak tree—arrange them slightly differently and you would have a bumble bee—arrange them again and you would have the instructions for making a bacterium. Acting through more than two billion years, the process of evolution has taken one basic idea—a molecular code that uses four letters—and used it over and over, in millions of combinations to produce a dazzling array of life forms...
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