Ancient India
The civilizations of the Indus River Valley were a very unique group for a number of reasons. As with most ancient civilizations, the social, political and economic systems were guided by religious beliefs. For ancient Indians; however, religious practice literally dictated most levels of social organization and political direction. Also, the same basic religious beliefs are still practiced today, giving researchers a deep understanding of this religious tradition. Another unique aspect of ancient India is the nature of its ruins. There are a number of urban centers that appear to be abandoned, yet not destroyed. The intact nature of these sites creates an intriguing picture of an advanced society set in the ancient world; with nuance and details usually lost to time still available for study.

One of the earliest cities of ancient India is Mohenjo-Daro. Located on the Western edge of the subcontinent, Mohenjo-Daro was a walled city built along the Indus River, which was typical of the time. It was a particularly large city, with approximately 50,000 residents. For purposes of illustrating the social structure and lifestyle of early Indians, it serves as the perfect example. Constructed of mud and bricks, the city had two distinct areas; the citadel and the city proper. The citadel served as a meeting area for military operations and as a hide out for citizens during attacks. Its location on a hill, high above the town proper suggests both its importance within the society, as well as the likelihood of attack from outsiders. The city was divided into well developed blocks with city streets lined with homes and shops. It seems apparent from the quality of goods left behind that skilled craftsmen and professional artists were able to make a living within its walls (Akhter, 2010).

In the center of the city was the Great Bath. It was surrounded by small dressing rooms and a room that housed the well and pump that fed baths; as well as irrigation canals to remove dirty water (Teachers Curriculum Institute, 2004). This indicates that the civilization was structured enough to allow for leisure activities, with enough wealth among its residents to afford to use it. Many examples of ancient games have been unearthed as well.

As further evidence of the advanced level of infrastructure, sewer systems flowed beneath the city utilizing drains, pipes and wells to bring clean water into and dirty water out of the city. This plumbing was found in the homes of the wealthy and the poor. Homes were generally two storied and contained numerous individual rooms. Windows were made of alabaster and they even had screens created out of terra-cotta. Engineering of this level would not be seen again until ancient Rome (Teachers Curriculum Institute, 2004).

Politics and religion were inextricably linked in Ancient India. Hinduism shaped early Indian life in countless ways. Not only did it affect how people worshipped, but dictated what jobs they were eligible for, who could run for political office, and even what they ate. Hinduism determined the status of people throughout Indian society. Much of this was based on the concept of dharma, which signifies law, obligation and duty (Teachers Curriculum Institute, 2004). Adhering to dharma meant to live as one should, doing one’s duty; obeying laws and following one’s path. Early Hinduism was known as Vedaism, and was most likely brought to India by the conquering Aryans sometime in the second millennium BC. The Aryans were the ruling class, followed closely by the Brahmans, or priests who gained political power due to their ability to interpret and read the Vedas, or religious texts.

The complexity of the religion continued to grow, and a strong political and social structure began to emerge. The caste system was based on strict socials stratification as dictated by the Vedas as follows: the highest level were the Brahmins, priests and religious leaders; then the Kshatriyas, rulers and warriors; followed by the Vaishyas, herders and merchants; then the Shundras, as servants. The lowest level of the caste was the Pariah, or untouchable. They were relegated to their own neighborhoods and carried out dirty and lowly jobs such as handling dead bodies, garbage and sewage (Teachers Curriculum Institute, 2004).

The caste system affected every aspect of one’s life. Born into a particular caste, status could not be changed by works, education or ability. It was not even possible to marry out of caste. The system worked well due to its attachment to another important Hindu concept of Karma. In short, Karma is the idea that what goes around comes around (Bardhan, 2010). It is the belief that how one’s life is lived is reconciled in the social level they are born into in the next life. In essence, those of low order are obliged to suffer through it because it is atonement for a previous life not well lived. Souls were punished or rewarded for the good or evil they had done; it was fairness exemplified.

Before the advent of the Aryans, the political structure was that of kingdom. Families were bound together under tribal leadership and the head of that leadership was the king. There were many kingdoms spread throughout the Indus River Valley (Jupiter Infomedia, 2008). The Aryans introduced the concept of society to the Indians and unified these kingdoms, creating a form of absolute monarchy. They also introduced the concept of divine rights, by “tracing” their lineage back to the Vedic king, Manu (Jupiter Infomedia, 2008). By doing so, they stratified the caste system. Even with divine rights, Aryan kings still adhered to their caste dharma. The king was not all powerful, and was required to take an oath to look after the people and was expected to do so well. Kings also had limited powers, and served on the approval of the people. Again, adherence to religious tenants precluded even the head of state from acting in selfish best interest (Jupiter Infomedia, 2008).

It appears, from evidence found at Mohejo-Daro, that grain may have been used as currency in the earliest stages of civilization (Teachers Curriculum Institute, 2004). Multiple scales and weights as well as grinding equipment support this claim. Since landowners also kept personal granaries, it is suggested that the grainary within the citadel represented collected taxes. Though ancient India had a significant urban population, much of India's population resided in villages[->0], whose economy was largely isolated and self-sustaining. Agriculture was the predominant occupation. The successful large scale farming operations suggests that not only were the farmers able to feed themselves, but were also able to supply urban towns with food as well as provide raw materials for craftsmen. In addition to farmers, other classes of people were barbers[->1], carpenters[->2], doctors[->3], goldsmiths[->4], weavers[->5], within which the castes and sub-castes functioned much like medieval European guilds, ensuring division of labor and provided for training of apprentices. This evidence makes it fairly certain that the civilization was fairly advanced, with dedicated tradesmen and professionals to fill the needs of a diverse populace.

It appears that coinage replaced other forms of currency before the Maurya Dynasty took power. Punch marked silver[->6] ingots[->7] were the earliest traces of coinage in India[->8] (Akhter, 2010). While India's many kingdoms and rulers issued coins, barter[->9] was still widely prevalent. Villages paid a portion of their agricultural raw materials as revenue while its craftsmen received a stipend out of the crops at harvest time for their services. Each village, as an economic unit, was mostly self-sufficient (Bardhan, 2010). Surplus of Indian manufactures, like the muslin[->10] of Dacca[->11], calicos[->12] of Bengal[->13], shawls[->14] of Kashmir[->15], steel and iron works, silk, and other textiles and handicrafts, agricultural products like pepper[->16], cinnamon[->17], opium[->18] and indigo[->19] were exported to Europe, the Middle East[->20] and South East Asia[->21] in return for gold and silver. (Akhter, 2010).

Early Indian civilization was fairly advanced; with a clearly defined social and economic structure. They had stratified occupations and vibrant trade. Political power was dictated by a codified religious belief that gave everyone a role in society and a clear explanation of the division of power. The evidence found supports the concept that early India was a complex society that built a lasting foundation.

Works Cited

Akhter, I. (2010). Ancient India Economy. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from This Is My India: http://www.thisismyindia.com/ancient_india/ancient-india-economy.html
Bardhan, P. (2010). Awakening Giants, Feet of Clay: Assessing Economic Rise of China and India . Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.
Jupiter Infomedia. (2008). Indian Adminstration: Absolute Monarch in India. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from Indianet: http://www.indianetzone.com/40/ancient_indian_political_system.htm
Teachers Curriculum Institute. (2004). History Alive: The Ancient World. Palo Alto: TCI.

[->0] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villages
[->1] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barber
[->2] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpenter
[->3] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician
[->4] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldsmith
[->5] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaver_(occupation)
[->6] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver
[->7] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingots
[->8] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_coinage
[->9] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barter
[->10] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslin
[->11] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dacca
[->12] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calico_(fabric)
[->13] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal
[->14] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawl
[->15] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir
[->16] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_pepper
[->17] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamon
[->18] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium
[->19] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigo
[->20] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East
[->21] - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_East_Asia