adesh Our modern day Bangladesh is the successor of a four thousand year old civilization. Bangladesh is the successor of ancient "Banga", "Bangala" or "Bengal". Bangladesh literally means "the land of Banga". To discuss "the emergence of modern day Bangladesh, as an independent nation", we have to take under consideration, the different regimes that have shaped the face of modern day Bangladesh. Below we have discussed some important regimes that have ruled over this land at different stages of history:

Bengal under the Mughal rule
After the fall of the Karrani power in 1576, Bengal fell under the Mughal rule. But the establishment of effective rule took some time. * On 19th December, 1578, Khan-i-Jahan died and Muzaffar Khan became the governor of Bengal. Akbar's brother Mirza Hakim declared himself independent in Kabul, and Muzaffar Khan was defeated by rebels sympathetic to Mirza Hakim, and Bengal and Bihar was declared to be his. He sent a Subedar to Bengal, but lots of Afghans took control of parts of Bengal and all of Orissa. * In April 1582, Akbar sent Khan-i-Azam as the subedar of Bengal, who won partial victory; but parts of the region remained under Masum Kabuli and Isha Khan, even under the next subedar Shahbaz Khan. In June 1584, Kutlu Khan of Orissa, who had revolted and took over parts of Bengal, was defeated. * In 1586, both Isha Khan and Masum Kabuli accepted mughal overlordship. A new administrative system headed by a sipahsalar (later called subedar) started: Wazib Khan was the first sipahsalar, but he died in August 1587. He was followed by Sayyid Khan (1587–1594). * Raja Mansingh (1594–1605) was the next subedar of Bengal. He shifted the capital from Tanda to a new town of Akbarnagar. There were again revolts headed by Isha Khan and Raghudeva, cousin of Lakshminarayana, ruler of Coochbehar. The Mughals suffered heavy losses, but the revolt was suppressed. * In 1598, Mansingh took temporary retirement, and his eldest son Jagatsingh took over. When he died, the younger Mahasingh took over. Because of revolts, Mansingh had to return to Bengal and defeat them in February, 1601; though revolts continued till next year. He also defeated the Mags of Arakan. * Muhammad Jahangir (1605–1627) assumed the power of the Mughal Empire next and he replaced Mansingh with Qutb-ud-din Khan Koka (1605–1607). Qutb-ud-din Khan Koka and Sher Afghan Istalaju, a Turk Jaigirdar in Bengal, faced some nuisance from each other and both died in 1607. Sher Afghan's wife finally married Jahangir and was called Nur Jahan. * The next subedar was Quli Khan (1607–1608) and when he died, Islam Khan (June 1608–died August 1613). Even at this time large parts of Bengal, under the zamindars known as "Baro Bhuyans". Islam Khan, with his gunpowder, horses, and navy, overcame all these zamindars and also defeated Shatrudaman of Kachhar. In 1612, he moved the capital to Dhaka and called it Jahangirnagar. He then captured Kamrup which was then under Pariksit Narayan, an offshoot of the dynasty ruling Coochbehar which also came under Mughal rule. This was the beginning of true Mughal rule in Bengal, a fundamental change in the economic, religious, social, and political structure of Bengal: it was now one of twelve imperial provinces. Sufis brought a pan-Indian religious outlook to the religion of the masses around the same time. * The next subedar was Islam Khan's brother Qasim Khan (1614–17). He again saw revolts from different parts. * The next subedar Ibrahim Khan Fatehjang (1617–24) reconquered parts of Bengal, but he was defeated by Prince khurram (Shahabu-ud-din, later Shah Jahan), who had revolted against his father Jahangir. * In April 1624, Khurram started ruling independently over Bengal and Orissa and soon over Bihar and Oudh as well. He was defeated in October 1624, but when Jahangir died in 1627, after a confused period under Dawar Bakhsh (1627–28), he started ruling over the Mughal empire as Shahabu-ud-Din Shah Jahan Khusraw (1628–deposed in 1657). He defeated the Portuguese and recovered Hughli in 1632, and fought with Ahom. His son, Murad Baksh (1657) was defeated by subedar Shuja. Shuja was defeated by another of Shah Jahan's sons, Dara, who in turn was defeated by Mohi-ud-Din Awrangzeb Alamgir (1658–1707). Shuja fled to Arakan and was assasinated. * Mir Jumla (June 1660–died March 1663) was the next subedar of Bengal. During his time, Coochbehar occupied Kamrup, and Ahom, Gauhati. Then Ahom took over Kamrup. Mir Jumla took over both, but both became independent when he died. * The next subedar Shaesta Khan (March 1664–June 1688) was known for his economic oppression, but popularity amongst common man, in Bengal. He reconquered Coochbehar, defeated the Arakanese and Portuguese pirates and conquered Chittagong. * After this, Khan-i-Jahan Bahadur was subedar for a year, followed by Ibrahim Khan. zamindar Shobhasingh and Rahim Singh revolted during his time. In response Aurengzeb sent his grandson Azim-ud-Din, known as Azim-us-San (1697–1712), as the subedar. He suppressed the revolt. He let the Europeans fortify their settlements and ushered in the modern era in the history of Bengal.

Bengal under the Nawabs
From 1717 until 1880, three successive Islamic dynasties — the Nasiri, Afshar and Najafi — all related by bloodlines, ruled Bengal. This era was known as the "Nawab Era". They did not officially call themselves Nawabs but they styled their administrations in such a way that that subadari was not subject to a central government, rather it became a Masnad (throne) for successive incumbents. * The first dynasty, the Nasiri, ruled from 1717 until 1740. The founder of the Nasiri, Murshid Quli Jafar Khan, entered the service of the Emperor Aurangzeb and rose through the ranks before becoming nazim of Bengal in 1717, a post he held until his death in 1727. He in turn was succeeded by his grandson and son-in law until his grandson was killed in battle and succeeded by Alivardi Khan of the Afshar Dynasty in 1740. * The second dynasty, the Afshar, ruled from 1740 to 1757. They were succeeded by the third and final dynasty to rule Bengal, the Najafi, when Siraj Ud Daula, the last of the Afshar rulers was killed at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The Najafi ruled till 1880. * Murshid Quli Khan (Muhammad Hadi) was appointed dewan of Hydrabad and then of Bengal in 1700 and later appointed subadar (1717). During the end of Aurangzeb’s reign, subahdar Murshid Quli Khan shifted the capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad. Murshid Quli asserted his authority in a way that would help him run the affairs of Bengal virtually independently. (Haque, 2014) * Suja-ud-Din Khan son-in-law of Murshid Quli Khan succeded his father in law to the throne. He took up the name Suja-ud-Din. His regime is famous for its charitableness, justness and impartiality. Suja Uddin died in 1739. (Haque, 2014) * Sarafraz Khan ascended the throne after his father Suja Uddin. His tenure was very short. He received the impartial title of "Motamul-ul-Muluk Alauddowla" for his popularity. He was defeated at the battle of Giria in 1740 by Alivardi Khan. * Alivardi Khan is the famous father in law of Siraj-Ud-Dowla. He was the governor of Patna, got the Sanad as Subedar of Bangla and became the Nawab by defeating and killing Sarafraz in 1740. Alivardi ruled Bengal for 16 years. Though an efficient ruler, he had to encounter continual attacks by the Maratha and rebellions by the Afghans. He had to buy peace from the Maratha by allowing concessions. He maintained good relationships with Europeans but did not allow them to increase their military power. * Siraj-ud-Doula was the grandson of Alivardi. He ascended the throne on the death of Alivardi on 1956 AD. Siraj was so young and faced the trouble of the powerful British and his irritated relatives and bureaucrats. He tried to encounter these by first robbing his intriguing aunt, Begum Ghasiti, of her wealth and reducing the rank of the Commander-in-Chief (Bakshi) of the royal army, Mir-Jafar. On 1756 Siraj occupied the Kasimbazar factory of the British. Then he went on to occupy Calcutta in June 1756. * Battle of Palashi But then Siraj had to go to Purnea, Bihar to quench the rebellion of cousin Shaukat Jang, a claimant to the throne. Taking advantage of this situation the British amassed forces and re-conquered Calcutta in February 1757 and then struck a secret treaty with Mir-Jafar. The Nawab and the British army, under Robert Clive, met for the final round at Polashi. In an act of great betrayal by Mir-Jafar, Siraj was defeated on the 23rd June 1757, and killed. Mir-Jafar ascended to the throne of Bengal. * Mir Jafar (1757-1760, 1763-1765) was incompetent ruler even as a puppet. The British replaced him with his son-in-law Mir-Qasim (1770-17763) in 1760 on account of non-payment of dues. Mir-Qasim paid the dues off but started to show signs of independence. He shifted his capital to Monghyr in Bihar and tried to reorganize his own army. The British did not approve of this and defeated Mir-Qasim in the Battle of Boxer in 1764. Mir-Qasim was a man of strong passions as well as of resolution. Mir-Jafar regained the crown. He died the following year. This was followed by a number of Nawabs in succession who were merely puppets. * After the Battle of Boxer there were several spineless puppet Nawabs, controlled by the British. Who ruled till 1881.

Bengal in the Colonial periods
A map of India by the British surveyor, James Rennell (1784), shows that the territory of Bengal extended as far as Banaras to the west near the border of Oudh and Bihar to lower Assam and Sylhet in the east, and from the border with Nepal and Bhutan in the north of Midnapore bordering northern Orissa and the Bay of Bengal in the south. (Rennell,1979, as cited in encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.) * During the rule of the emperor Aurangzeb (reigned 1658–1707), the British East India Company was permitted to establish its base at Calcutta (part of the then Bengal). The British gained strength in the region as the Mughal empire weakened. In 1757, following a battle in the town of Palashi between forces led by British soldier Robert Clive and the nawab, Siraj-ud-Doula the East India Company emerged as the dominant political power in Suba Bangala. Under Gov.-Gen. Charles Cornwallis (served 1786–93), a permanent settlement system was established in the territory—now called the Bengal Presidency—whereby property rights were granted in perpetuity to local zamindars. This property policy indirectly stimulated the growth of a new landed middle class—especially in Calcutta—called the bhandralok. In time, this middle class emerged as the most active advocate of Indian self-government. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * The province of Bengal, for its enormous land mass was almost impossible to administer, So, In 1905, largely at the initiative of the viceroy George Nathaniel Curzon, two new provinces were created, ostensibly on a geopolitical basis; these provinces were Western Bengal, including Bihar and Orissa, and Eastern Bengal and Assam. With its capital at Calcutta, Western Bengal had a Hindu majority, while the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, with its capital at Dhaka, was predominantly Muslim. Aside from increasing administrative efficiency, it also positioned the Muslims as a counterweight to the Hindus. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * The partition elicited vociferous protest in Western Bengal, especially in Calcutta, where the Indian National Congress (formed in 1885) played a prominent role. Indian Muslim leaders, however, mostly supported the partition, and in 1906 they gathered at Dhaka under the patronage of Nawab Salimullah and set up the All-India Muslim League. Their efforts secured separate electorates and separate constituencies for the Muslims under the constitutional reforms of 1909, but they could not save the partition. In 1912 the partition was annulled, Bihar and Orissa were constituted into a new province, and Assam reverted to its separate status.(Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * Following the reunification of Bengal, the Congress Party and the Muslim League worked together for self-government; among the leaders of this effort were Nawab Salimullah, Chitta Ranjan Das, Fazl ul-Haq, and Sarat Chandra Bose. Communal animosities resurfaced in the early 1920s, however, in the wake of a failed nonviolent alignment between the Indian Muslim front known as the Khilafat Movement and the Hindu-led Indian nationalist Noncooperation Movement under Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * Consequently, in order to achieve political goals, it became necessary to adopt coalition tactics that would transcend communal antagonisms; the politician who proved most adept at this was Fazl ul-Haq, chief minister of Bengal from 1937 to 1943. He set up his own Peasants and Tenants (Krishak Proja) Party and formed a coalition with the Muslim League. In 1940, at the league’s annual gathering at Lahore, Fazl ul-Haq proposed the so-called Lahore Resolution, demanding independent states for Muslims. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * In 1942 new rounds of political dialogue commenced, but no agreement could be reached. With legislative elections in 1946, the Muslim League returned to power under the leadership of Hussain Shaheed Suhrawardy, who subsequently became chief minister of Bengal. In August of that year an intense Muslim-Hindu communal conflict erupted in Calcutta, and it eventually spread well beyond the borders of Bengal. This event, combined with protracted and unfruitful discussions between the various groups, made the partition of India appear inevitable. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * In March 1947 Louis Mountbatten became the last viceroy of British India, with a mandate to transfer powers. As plans were being formulated for the partition of India, Mohammed Ali Jinnah, a leading figure of the Muslim League, advocated for the formation of a united Bengal; Mountbatten was not against the idea, but Mahatma Gandhi and the Congress Party opposed it. When British colonial rule ended in August 1947, two new countries—India and Pakistan—were born, and Bengal was split between them. West Bengal went to India, and East Bengal formed the eastern wing of Pakistan, which was bisected by a vast tract of northern India. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited)

East Pakistan
Pakistan began as a parliamentary democracy with a constituent assembly that was charged with the dual function of drafting a constitution and serving as the new country’s legislative body; however, overbearing central leadership eventually nullified the system. * In the central government, Bengalis held the majority in the legislative branch but had little representation in the executive. Physically and linguistically separated, the two parts of Pakistan had only tenuous links. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * Jinnah and his advisers believed that unification might be achieved through a common language, Urdu, which was used in the army and administration. By 1948, however, Bengalis had begun to resent the nonacceptance of Bengali as an official language, the domination of the bureaucracy by non-Bengalis, and the appropriation of provincial functions and revenue by the central government. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * When Jinnah died in 1948, Nazimuddin became governor-general, but the real power lay with Liaquat Ali Khan, the prime minister. When Liaquat was assassinated in October 1951, Nazimuddin succeeded him as prime minister and installed Ghulam Mohammad, a Punjabi, as governor-general. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * Ghulam Mohammad consolidated a coalition of civil and military forces in the central government and secured a virtual transfer of power from the politicians to the coalition, first by dismissing Nazimuddin in 1953 and then by dismissing the entire constituent assembly shortly after the general elections of 1954. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * In those elections, almost all the seats had been won by the United Front, a coalition of opposition parties led largely by Fazl ul-Haq and his revamped Peasants and Tenants Party (now called the Peasants and Workers Party) and by Suhrawardy, who had made a comeback with a new party, the Awami League. In 1955 Ghulam Mohammad left office, and Maj. Gen. Iskandar Mirza, who had served both as governor in East Bengal and as a central minister, took office as governor-general. Under Mirza, East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * With a newly elected constituent assembly, Pakistan in 1956 at last adopted a constitution in which both the eastern and western wings of the country were equally represented. The new constitution also gave the federal government wide powers. Mirza became president and was obliged to appoint Suhrawardy, heading an Awami League coalition, as prime minister; by late 1957, however, Mirza had orchestrated Suhrawardy’s exit from office. In December of that year Firoz Khan Noon became the prime minister. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * In 1958 the government of Pakistan came under military control, and Mirza was exiled. The elite civil servants assumed great importance under the military regime, which adversely affected the country’s eastern wing. Although equal recruitment from the two wings was national policy, by 1960 only about one-third of the members of the Civil Service of Pakistan were Bangalis. Moreover, the military installations were concentrated in West Pakistan, as was the bulk of economic aid and development. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * Bengali discontent festered, finding a voice in Mujibur Rahman (popularly known as Sheikh Mujib). He had been one of the founders of the Awami League in 1949 and became its leading figure after Suhrawardy’s death in 1963. A superb organizer and orator who was jailed repeatedly by the military, Mujib acquired an aura of martyrdom. Following a 1965 clash between India and Pakistan, he announced a historic six-point demand for East Pakistani autonomy. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited) * When in December 1970 Yahya Khan, president of Pakistan and commander in chief of the armed forces, ordered elections, Mujib’s Awami League won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan in the National Assembly. This gave the league an overall majority in a chamber of 313 members. In West Pakistan the Pakistan People’s Party, led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, won 81 of 144 seats; Bhutto consequently saw himself as Mujib’s rival. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited)

* Throughout March 1971 President Yahya Khan negotiated at length with Mujib in Dhaka while government troops poured in from West Pakistan. Then, on March 25, the army launched a massive attack; destruction was immense, and many students were among the casualties. Mujib was arrested and flown to West Pakistan. Most of the Awami League leaders fled, set up a government-in-exile in Calcutta (Kolkata), and declared East Pakistan the independent state of Bangladesh. Internal resistance was mobilized by some Bengali units of the regular army. Civilians began to organize bands of guerrillas. Indian government provided them the training and ammunition. (Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d.: edited)

Birth of Independent Bangladesh
In the nine month long conflict, over 10 million Bangalis, took refuge in India while the Indian government watched with alarm. Almost 3 million Bangalis died and 2 million women were raped in the war. The Indian army intervened in the war on Dec. 3, 1971. Thus giving it an appearance of an international conflict. The Pakistani defenses surrendered on December 16, ensuring Bangladesh’s independence.

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