Unit
READING …………………………………….
2 3 5 Overview exercise ……………………………. Article …………….……………………… Close study exercise …………………….

4
2 7

WRITING (Argument) ………………...............
Suitable Topics for an Argument ……………. Elements of an Argument ……………………. Rational or Emotional Appeal ……………. Dealing with your Opponents ……………. Discovering the Pros & Cons ……………. Organization of an Argument ……………. Strong Argument ……………………. Balanced Argument ……………………. Writing tips ……………………………. Being Concise ……………………………. Using Specific Detail ……………………. 7 7 10 10 11 13 13 16 20 20 23

REMEDIAL WORK
Review

………………………... 25

……………………………………. 25

VOCABULARY

………………………............ 31

Academic Word List (AWL) 6 ……………. 31 Word Formation 4 ................................ 32

PRESENTATIONS

……………………...… 33

Argument ……………………………………. 33

READING

The article on the following pages is taken from the Science & Technology page of the BBC website. Dated 19 July 2010, the article expresses one point of view in the continuing debate about GM food, which is a significant part of the biotechnology industry. “GM” stands for “genetically modified.”

Exercise 1 Overview
Answer the questions below to obtain an overview of the article. Many questions can be answered by reference to the topic sentences.

1. 2. 3. 4.

What kind of science does Jonathan Jones specialize in? He is writing in the BBC’s “Green Room.” What is that? Read the article synopsis. What does Professor Jones think about GM food crops? Read the whole of the introductory paragraph. What does the scientist do in the first half of this paragraph? What does he do in the second half? 5. Read the first sentence of paragraph 2. What two conflicting goals does the scientist want to achieve? 6. What connection with GM, if any, do the three photos have? 7. According to paragraph 4, how long has Jones been involved in genetic modification? 8. What is paragraph 5 about, according to the topic sentence? 9. What aspect of GM food crops does paragraph 6 deal with? 10. According to the heading, what is paragraph 7 about? 11. What part of the world does paragraph 8 deal with? 12. What aspect of the GM debate do paragraphs 9 and 10 attempt to present? 13. According to the concluding paragraph, is GM the only solution to the food problem? 14. Having skimmed the article, what do you think the title means?

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

2

Fussy eaters - what's wrong with GM food?
VIEWPOINT Jonathan Jones
Professor Jonathan Jones is senior scientist for The Sainsbury Laboratory, based at the John Innes Centre, a research centre in plant and microbial science. The Green Room is a series of opinion articles on environmental topics running weekly on the BBC News website.

With the world's food security facing a looming "perfect storm", GM food crops need to be part of the solution, argues Professor Jonathan Jones. In this week's Green Room, he wonders why there is such a fuss about biotechnology when it can help deliver a sustainable global food system. 1. A billion humans do not have enough to eat. Water resources are limited, energy costs are rising, the cultivatable land is already mostly cultivated, and climate change could hit productive areas hard. We need a sustainable intensification of agriculture to increase production by 50% by 2030 - but how? In the US or Europe, improved seeds could increase yields by 10% or more, reduce pesticide use and give "more crop per drop". 2. I want to reduce the environmental impact of agriculture while maintaining food supply. The best thing we can do is cultivate less land, leaving more for wildlife. But if we are still to produce enough food, yields must go up. There are many contributors to yield: water, fertiliser, farming practice, and choice of seed. 'Simple method' 3. We can improve crop variety performance by both plant breeding (which gets better every year), and by genetic modification (GM). Ouch; yuck - GM. Did you recoil from those letters? Why?

In the US, where many processed foods contain ingredients derived from GM maize or soy, in the most litigious society in history, nobody has sued for a GM health problem

4. I started making GM plants in 1983, working at a long-defunct agbiotech company in California called Advanced Genetic Sciences. In the early 80s, we did wonder about "unknown unknowns—the unknowns we didn't know we didn't know about", but 27 years later, nothing alarming has been seen. 5. The method (GM is a method not a thing) is simple. We take a plant, which typically carries about 30,000 genes, and add a few additional genes that confer insect resistance, or herbicide resistance, or disease resistance, or

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

3

more efficient water use, or improved human nutrition, or less polluting effluent from animals that eat the grain, or more efficient fertiliser uptake, or increased yield. We could even (heck, why not?) do all of the above to the same plant. The result is increased yield, decreased agrochemical use and reduced environmental impact of agriculture. 6. In commercial GM, many hundreds of independent introductions of the desired new gene (the "transgene") are made, each in a different individual plant that is selected and tested. Most are discarded. To be commercialised, a line must carry a simple, stable and well-defined gene insertion, and show effective transgene function, with no negative effects on Droughts caused wheat prices to the plant. rocket as global harvests failed

Growing demand 7. GM is the most rapidly adopted, benign, effective new technology for agriculture in my lifetime. Fourteen million farmers grow GM crops on 135 million hectares; these numbers increased by about 10% per year over the past decade, and this rate of growth continues. More than 200,000 tonnes of insecticide have not been applied, thanks to built-in insect resistance in Bt crops. There are not enough fish in the sea to provide us all with enough omega 3 fatty acids in our diet, but we can now modify oilseeds to make this nutrient in crops on land.

8. And yet in Europe, we seem stuck in a time warp. Worldwide, 135 million hectares of GM crops have been planted; yet in Norfolk, I needed to spend £30,000 of taxpayers' money to provide security for a field experiment with 192 potato plants, carrying one or another of a disease-resistant gene from a wild relative of potato. It boggles the mind.

Researchers say GM potatoes will drastically cut the use of fungicides

'Wishful thinking' 9. What are people afraid of? Some fear GM food is bad for health. There are no data that support this view. In the US, where many processed foods contain ingredients derived from GM maize or soy, in the most litigious society in history, nobody has sued for a GM health problem. Some fear GM is bad for the environment. But in agriculture, idealism does not solve problems. Farmers need "least bad" solutions; they do not have the luxury of insisting on utopian solutions. It is less bad to control weeds with a rapidly inactivated herbicide after the crop germinates than to apply more persistent chemicals beforehand. It is less bad to have the plant make its own insecticidal protein, than to spray insecticides. It is better to maximise the productivity of arable

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

4

land via all kinds of sustainable intensification, than to require more land under the plough because of reduced yields. 10. Some say GM is high risk, but they cannot tell you what the risk is. Some say GM is causing deforestation in Brazil, even though, if yields were less, more deforestation would be required to meet Chinese and European demand for animal feed. Some say we do not need GM blight-resistant potatoes to solve the £3.5bn per year problem of potato blight, because blight-resistant varieties have been bred. But if these varieties are so wonderful, how come farmers spend £500 per hectare on spraying to protect blight-sensitive varieties? 11. I used to be a member of a green campaign group. They still have campaigns I support (sustainable fishing, save the rainforests, fight climate change), but on GM, they are simply wrong. Even activists of impeccable green credentials, such as Stewart Brand, see the benefits of GM. Wishful thinking will not feed the planet without destroying it. Instead, we need smart, sustainable, sensitive science and technology, and we need to use every tool in our toolbox, including GM.

Exercise 2 Close Study
Study the article closely to answer the following questions. Try to understand some of the argumentative techniques used by the writer.

1. Dictionary work. Read the definition of “perfect storm” below:

With reference to the introductory paragraph, which “unique set of circumstances” does the writer mean when he talks about a “perfect storm” in the world’s food security? 2. What does the writer mean by “more crop per drop”? (para. 1) 3. From your own knowledge, give some examples of the “environmental impact of agriculture.” (para. 2, lines 1, 2) 4. What is another word for “yield”? Which of the four “contributors to yield” mentioned in paragraph 2 is this article concerned with? 5. What are two ways to improve plant varieties? Which is an ancient technique and which is a new one? 6. At the end of paragraph 3, what does the writer mean by “Ouch; yuck – GM”? What kind of tone and language is this? Why would a scientist write this in a serious article? 7. How does the fourth paragraph strengthen the scientist’s argument? 8. “GM is a method not a thing.” (para. 5) Why does the scientist say this? Is he just stating a fact or is there another reason? How do the words “simple” and “a few” help him get his message across about GM?

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

5

9. What does the writer list in para. 5? What three benefits do all these factors result in? 10. Before GM food can enter the market, what strict rules must be applied to it? (para. 6) 11. How widespread is GM crop production? (para. 7) 12. Identify one environmental benefit of using GM crops. 13. In what sense could a GM food replace a fish? 14. Dictionary work. Refer to the definitions of “time warp” below. Which one applies to the expression as it is used in paragraph 8?

15. What point is the writer trying to make about Europe with his example of the Norfolk (UK) GM field experiment? 16. Vocabulary. What is a more formal way of saying “It boggles the mind”? 17. In para. 9, the writer uses one American characteristic to support his argument that GM food is not a health problem. What is this point? Is it an effective piece of evidence? 18. Paragraph 9 also deals with environmental fears about GM. How does he try to weaken his opponents’ argument? Is this effective evidence? 19. In para. 10, the writer responds to two more concerns. What are they, and how effective are his counter-arguments? 20. In the concluding paragraph, why does the writer mention his “green” credentials? In what way does this help his argument?

Look at the two cartoons below about GM. Are they for or against?

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

6

Argument
In formal academic writing, an argument is a debate involving two or more sides in which each tries to convince the other that its opinion is correct. This purpose—to convince—is what makes argument different from the kind of writing that you have done in the course so far: definition, causal analysis and comparison. The writer’s purpose there was to inform his reader, rather than to convince him to accept an opinion or to follow a certain course of action. For example, an extended definition of the term ‘hybrid vehicle’ aims only to tell the reader about this subject. However, a writer who claims that hybrid vehicles are better than petrol-powered cars aims to convince the reader of this opinion. At first glance, an informative piece of writing and an argumentative piece look very similar. Both may make extensive use of the same methods of exposition like definition, description, exemplification, causal analysis, and, especially, comparison; both will have an introduction consisting of some background information and a thesis statement; both will have a body consisting of several paragraphs, each with its own topic sentence; and both are likely to include a conclusion which brings the composition to a satisfactory end. The essential difference, however, is that each has a very different purpose: either to inform (for expository writing) or to convince (for argumentative writing).

Suitable topics for argument
One obvious requirement for an argument is that the topic has to be arguable. Some topics cannot be argued. For example, if you prefer Pepsi but your friend prefers Coke, you cannot change your friend’s mind with a reasoned argument; such topics are personal to the individual. At the other end of the spectrum from such subjective feelings are verifiable facts, such as ‘the sun rises in the east and sets in the west’ or ‘Riyadh is the capital of Saudi Arabia.’ Such facts cannot be argued, either: if you and your friend disagree about the weight of a piece of lab equipment, you need to weigh it not debate it. Suitable topics for argument, therefore, involve opinions about which there is disagreement and for which supporting evidence can be presented by both sides. A topic such as ‘the history of KFUPM’ is not arguable because the facts are already recorded. However, a topic such as ‘KFUPM should use Arabic not English in all its courses’ can be argued. Some people will disagree with the opinion, others will agree, and each side can bring its own reasons and evidence to support its point of view. Argumentative topics are often formulated using words like “should” or “must,” but not always. Study the list of topics below and decide which are suitable for argument: Exercise 1
Identify suitable topics for argument from the list below.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Social networking sites do more harm than good. The difference between conduction and convection. Pluto should not be classified as a planet. Space exploration is a waste of money. How a nuclear power plant works.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

7

6. Nuclear power is the best way to secure a country’s energy supplies. 7. The growth of Internet banking. 8. The Internet should be controlled by national governments. 9. A statistical analysis of Saudi Arabia’s water reserves. 10. Saudi Arabia should take action now to secure its future water supply.

The elements of an argument
An effective argument has three elements: your thesis, the reasons that support your thesis, and the evidence that supports each of your reasons. Thesis The thesis is basically your opinion—the idea that you want to convince your audience to accept. It is also sometimes referred to as your claim. As noted above, the thesis has to be an arguable topic, something that you can provide good support for. It could be a subject of some personal interest to you—for example, ‘Television is a waste of time’; ‘The University should provide a better bus service for students’; or ‘Saudi Arabia should not allow fast food restaurants’—or it could be a technical or semi-technical subject such as ‘GM foods should be encouraged’; ‘Animal experimentation is necessary’; or ‘The Kingdom should make better use of its solar energy resource’. Reasons Whatever your thesis, you must be able to provide reasons why you believe it and why your audience should believe it, too. Sometimes, these reasons are also opinions just like your thesis. For example, reasons that support the solar energy thesis above are that solar energy is clean and renewable. One of your reasons for disliking social networking sites could be that people waste too much time there. A reason to support the GM crop thesis is that much scientific evidence points to the benefits of GM crops. These are all good reasons but simply stating them will not convince your reader; you must back them up with reliable evidence. Evidence Evidence consists of supporting information that gives credibility to your reasons. Essentially, the success of your argument depends on the strength of your evidence, and the more hostile the audience or the stronger the counter-argument, the greater is your need for convincing evidence. Common sources of evidence include the following:  Facts  Statistics  Examples  Expert opinions  Personal experience THESIS REASONS EVIDENCE

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

8



The best evidence often consists of facts that are easily verifiable or that have been scientifically or historically accepted by most people. For example, one reason why Saudi Arabia should invest more in solar energy is that it has an abundant supply of sunlight throughout the year. This is a fact that simple observation will confirm though more persuasive evidence would come in the form of meteorological records that measure the precise amount of solar energy received annually.

 Statistics—especially official statistics from the government or academia—can be regarded as facts expressed in numerical form and they can also provide useful evidence. However, the writer has to be aware that the same set of statistics can sometimes be manipulated to produce different results. Also, one set of statistics may not provide the complete picture. For example, statistics that show a 20% increase in traffic accidents over a ten-year period appear to support the thesis that ‘There should be more rigorous driving tests’; however, another set of statistics showing that the number of drivers has increased by 40% in the same period suggests that the thesis may be wrong.  Examples are specific instances of situations and events that illustrate your thesis. In the bus thesis above, the example of another university where better bus facilities have brought about major improvements would be useful evidence for your side of the argument. Similarly, in the animal experimentation thesis, the example of a health cure that is clearly attributable to experiments on animals would strengthen your case.  Using opinions from relatives, friends or ‘ordinary’ people as evidence will not usually provide your thesis with adequate support. However, expert opinions—sometimes presented as quotations—can be very useful. In our GM crop example above, a statement by an eminent genetics scientist that ‘GM crops are harmless to humans and the environment’ will help make your thesis more convincing than if the same idea had been expressed by a non-specialist.  Finally, depending on the topic, your personal experience can sometimes provide suitable evidence. In the bus example, accounts by yourself and other student bus commuters of being late for class because of bus breakdowns and delays will add to the strength of your argument. Personal experience is not usually the best kind of evidence but for some theses it may be the only evidence available to you. As long as you keep to the facts and do not exaggerate, personal experience can provide useful support for your argument. The kind of evidence you give depends on your particular composition topic and on the availability of supporting sources. Your composition topic, for example, may refer to a source that you read and discussed with your teacher in class and which may therefore contain statistics and expert opinion that you can use to support your argument. Other composition topics may require you to draw on your own ideas only, in which case you may have to depend on known examples and on your own personal experience.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

9

Rational or emotional appeal
The most convincing evidence usually appeals to the audience’s mind (a rational appeal) rather than to their feelings (an emotional appeal). The rational approach—relying on factual evidence and expert opinion aimed at reason and common sense—is the preferred approach when dealing with a scientific or technical topic. The scientific community is likely to regard any emotional appeal that attempts to evoke fear, anger, pity, amusement, and so on, as the sort of ‘trickery’ that advertisers use to persuade their customers to buy their products. However, while no argument should rely only on an emotional appeal, there are occasions when it can be used (alongside the rational appeal) to make a more convincing argument. It all depends on the topic and the target audience. For example, to support a thesis such as ‘People should donate more money to reduce African poverty,’ it would be appropriate—alongside the various facts and figures of African poverty—to describe the very harsh daily lives that many sub-Saharan Africans are subjected to. The aim here is to evoke pity that will help convince readers that they should take the necessary action. Such emotional appeals can be effective but the writer needs great care. He must be sure of his audience’s reaction to such an appeal, he must not exaggerate the situation, and he must not inflame the reader’s passions to the extent that the rational appeal is lost.

Dealing with your opponents
So far, the discussion has focused on constructing your thesis, your supporting reasons and your evidence, but there are at least two sides to every argument. Your opponents in the debate will have a counterargument that may include evidence that is as strong as yours. For example, in the bus argument (above), your opponents—the University authorities—will argue against a fleet of new buses for financial reasons. They will produce evidence from the Finance, Maintenance and Payroll departments that a fleet of new buses would cost several hundred thousand riyals in total (i.e., initial purchase of the buses, resulting maintenance costs, increased fuel costs, additional bus drivers, and so on). Further statements from experts will emphasize the difficulties in taking such a step at this time. What should you do with this counter-argument?

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

10

First of all, you cannot ignore a serious counter-argument such as this. If you did, and the contrary evidence became known, it would seriously weaken your own case, which would be seen as superficial. Second, including your opponent’s position could actually strengthen your own argument because your honesty in dealing with it would add credibility to your own argument. Finally, by including the counter-argument, you would also create for yourself the opportunity of attacking—and hopefully weakening—your opponent’s position. Occasionally, opposing evidence may be so strong that it cannot be refuted (that is, ‘proven false’) and so your only option is to concede it (‘accept it as true’) as generously as possible and trust that your own argument will prove even stronger. Weakening a counter-argument It is often possible to identify weaknesses in your opponent’s counter-argument. For example, in the bus argument, you could try to show how the academic and environmental benefits of a new fleet of buses would far outweigh the financial disadvantages; or you could produce your own financial evidence showing that eliminating the huge maintenance costs of the current old buses would make the new buses cost-effective. Similarly, a counter-argument in the solar energy thesis could be that electricity produced by solar power is much more expensive now than that produced by conventional fossil fuels. This argument could be weakened with expert opinion and statistical projections showing the downward financial trend of solar power in the coming decades. The strength of the argument of the two sides depends both on the strength of the evidence and on the writer’s skill in presenting it in a convincing way. In any argument, it is rare for one side to possess the whole truth, so you should know not only your own position well but also that of your opponents. Present their main arguments honestly and then—if you can— identify the weaknesses in it that will convince the audience that your argument is superior.

Discovering the pros and cons of an argument
When setting an argument composition, your teacher may decide if you should write for or against a particular thesis, or he may leave it up to you to decide which side you are on. In both cases, however, you must gather information about both sides of the argument. An example follows. Question At KFUPM, students living within about 30km of the campus must live at home. Argue that all students should be allowed to live on campus.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

11

As with all composition questions, your first task is to read the question carefully so you fully understand what the argument involves and can decide which side of it you are on. Next, gather the information that you need to write a persuasive answer. In our example question, the student must argue for the proposition that all KFUPM students should be allowed to live on campus. Because this is an argument, information about both sides of the debate is needed. However, when considering the counter-arguments, think at the same time how they could be weakened. Brainstorming the question could lead to the following random ideas:
So, build up; make higher residence blocks. Home environment may be difficult for studying: noise, family chores. Better on campus: easier to focus; fewer distractions.

BUT: campus has no space for more accommodation

At home: Miss out on social life: can’t always participate in clubs, sports, etc. FOR on-campus accommodation for all students.

BUT: building new accommodation will be v. expensive.

Recent research in USA: oncampus students get better grades.

Economic reasons not as important as student’s wellbeing.

On-campus students have unfair advantage: right next to facilities like Library, computer labs; teachers are available.

On-campus students have room mates who can help with studying and social activities; make friends.

After spending some time gathering as many points as possible for and against the thesis, you may well find that you have written down a dozen or more points. Clearly, you cannot simply write these down one after another in your composition. These ideas need to be sorted and organized. Most of the points will be ideas that support your point of view but some will be counter-arguments. First, therefore, separate your position from the counter-argument. Then, examine the ideas carefully to see if you can group them into two or three main points (your reasons). For example, of the nine separate points above, five support the thesis, two are counterarguments, and two are ideas that weaken those counter-arguments. On closer examination, the five supporting points appear to be concerned with two main areas: academic and social matters. These will become the two main reasons that support your argument. Having gathered your information and sorted it into points for and against, your next task is to decide on the structure of the composition.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

12

Organization of an argument
There are a number of methods for organizing an argument. Two well-known ones are the strong argument and the balanced argument.

1. The strong argument
With the strong argument, the writer adopts a clear position from the start, defends it with evidence, and weakens his opponent’s argument at the same time. His point of view is expressed forcefully and consistently throughout. The strong argument has an introduction, a body that consists of at least three paragraphs, and a conclusion. Introduction The introductory paragraph of an argument has two parts: some brief background about the topic and a concise thesis statement that clearly sets out the opinion that you want your audience to accept. The background should lead your audience into the topic without giving specific details at this early stage. It could, for example, provide a definition, some description, or some historical or theoretical information.

INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND THESIS STATEMENT

The thesis statement is vital. With this organizational method, you must tell the reader at the start of the argument precisely what your position is on the topic—he should not have to guess. A thesis statement such as “Living on campus and living off campus both have advantages and disadvantages” is unacceptable with this method because it fails to show the writer’s point of view. A strong, clear thesis statement is required, such as “There are several excellent reasons why all students should be allowed to live on campus.” Body

VARIATION 1
COUNTER-ARGUMENTS
—weaken them

REASON 1 + evidence REASON 2 + evidence

The body of your argument is likely to consist of three or four paragraphs depending on the number of separate points to discuss and the amount of time available to you. In the body, you present—in the most convincing way possible—the reasons and accompanying evidence that support your thesis. In addition, you mention any counter-arguments, and, if you can, try to weaken them. Whether you are presenting your own position or your opponent’s, you must do so as fairly as possible without exaggerating or misrepresenting the evidence.

VARIATION 2
REASON 1 + evidence COUNTER-ARGUMENTS
—weaken them

REASON 2 + evidence

There are two organizational variations of this method: (1) you can place your opponent’s argument first in the body or (2) you can ‘sandwich’ your opponent’s argument between your own key points.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

13

Conclusion Not all pieces of informative writing require a conclusion, but persuasive ones usually do. The conclusion of a strong argument consists of at least two elements. First, in a concise summary, the writer should remind his audience of the key points of the argument (including his opponent’s position). Second, he should end with a forceful reminder of the thesis statement that appeared at the end of the introduction.

CONCLUSION
BRIEF SUMMARY REPEAT THE THESIS STATEMENT RECOMMENDATION

While no new evidence should be introduced into a conclusion, it may be appropriate for the writer to follow the re-iterated thesis statement with a recommendation that follows logically from it. Outline Having decided on your organizational method, make an outline to guide your writing. The two outlines below show the organizations of the two variations.
Variation 1

Variation 2

INTRODUCTION COUNTER-ARGUMENTS Lack of campus space —build multi-storey blocks Too expensive —University has big budget —student welfare comes before money ACADEMIC On-campus students: 5-minute walk from all Uni facilities, eg Library, computer labs, teachers Quieter environment; no family distractions Statistics show that on-campus students do better than off-campus ones.. SOCIAL On-campus: better social life, integration Participate in campus activities like sports, and join clubs. Roommate helps socially and academically. CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION ACADEMIC On-campus students: 5-minute walk from all Uni facilities, eg Library, computer labs, teachers Quieter environment; no family distractions Statistics show that on-campus students do better than off-campus ones.. COUNTER-ARGUMENTS Lack of campus space —build multi-storey blocks Too expensive —University has big budget —Student welfare comes before money SOCIAL On-campus: better social life, integration Participate in campus activities like sports, and join clubs. Roommate helps socially and academically. CONCLUSION

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

14

STRONG ARGUMENT Variation 1
On-campus Accommodation for All Students According to University rules, on-campus accommodation can only be provided to students who live more than about 30 kilometers from the University. Those living nearer must live at home. However, I strongly believe that all students should be allowed to live on campus. Opponents of this position have two basic objections, namely that the campus is too small to accommodate all students and, secondly, that construction is too costly. Their first argument can be overcome simply by building multistorey apartment blocks. As for cost, the University has a large budget for construction projects and could afford this accommodation project. Allowing home students to live on campus will bring academic benefits. On-campus students live just a 5minute walk from academic facilities like the Library and computer labs, and of course their teachers and advisers. They have no family distractions so can focus on their work. In addition, research done at Washington State University showed that on-campus students scored almost one grade higher than those who lived at home and had to commute long distances. There are also important social benefits for a student living on campus. He can join clubs and more easily participate in campus activities like sports. In addition— and I speak from personal experience—he shares his accommodation with a room mate, who can help him both academically and socially. From the above discussion, it is clear that allowing all students to live on campus will bring academic and social benefits. Building high blocks means that the campus can accommodate all students and any financial objections must take second place to the well-being of students. For these reasons, I strongly believe that all students must be allowed to live on campus and I recommend that the University starts work to achieve this goal immediately.

TITLE: Your title should express your point of view. INTRODUCTION: Give some general background information and then write a strong thesis statement that clearly shows your position. VARIATION 1: Counter-argument is placed first There are many ways to introduce a counter-argument: Some people claim that … Opponents argue that … It is asserted that … If you can, try and weaken the counterargument with your own evidence. YOUR ARGUMENT After dealing with the counterarguments, the following two or three paragraphs set out your own argument. Introduce each new point with a topic sentence that states your reason. The topic sentence is followed by your evidence in the form of: Facts Statistics Expert opinion Examples Personal experience What kind of evidence has been used to support the student’s academic, and social reasons? ORDER OF INFORMATION Look carefully at your two or three points and decide their most effective order. With this variation, points are often arranged in increasing importance so that the last reason is also your strongest reason. This makes a bigger impact on your reader.

CONCLUSION In your conclusion:    Briefly summarize your key points; Re-state your thesis statement in a strong way; If relevant, make a recommendation based on your thesis.

If you chose to use the other variation to write this composition, the counter-arguments paragraph would be placed between the academic and social paragraphs. In this position, the counterargument is “hidden” and so exerts less power to persuade than if it were placed first or last.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

15

2. The balanced argument
The second method of writing an argument is the balanced argument. As its name suggests, it gives a more evenly balanced approach to the two sides of the argument. It first explains the pros and cons, then discusses the evidence, and finally concludes with the expression of a firm position. This approach is not as forceful as the strong method but is still very effective. It suggests to the reader that, because both sides of the argument are being given equal treatment, any conclusion reached must be a fair one. Of course, the writer is likely to have already made up his mind before the start but, even if he has, he must appear impartial when presenting the evidence.
Introduction As with the strong method of organization, start your introduction with some background information. However— unlike the other method—you should give a neutral thesis statement rather than one that clearly shows your point of view. Body The body will typically consist of three paragraphs in which all the evidence both for and against is presented and then discussed. The first paragraph presents the “pro” argument; the second presents the “con” argument; and the third discusses all the evidence presented, pointing out its strengths and weaknesses. This third paragraph may hint at your eventual position. Conclusion Having previously presented and weighed up the conflicting evidence, in the conclusion you now explicitly state your own position. If relevant, you may conclude with a recommendation that follows on logically from your stance. Outline
CONCLUSION State your own position. Give a recommendation. BODY Present the “pro” case. Present the “con” case. Discuss all the evidence. INTRODUCTION Background Neutral thesis statement

INTRODUCTION PROS Academic: On-campus students: 5-minute walk from all Uni facilities, eg Library, computer labs, teachers Quieter environment; no family distractions Statistics show that on-campus students do better than off-campus ones.. Social: On-campus: better social life, integration Participate in campus activities like sports, and join clubs. Roommate helps socially and academically. CONS Many students may prefer to live at home despite the benefits of campus life. Space problem: Lack of campus space for all 10000 students Cost: Too expensive at the present time. DISCUSSION Academic and social reasons are valid Space problem: —build multi-storey blocks Cost problem: —University has big budget + —Student welfare must come before money CONCLUSION

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

16

BALANCED ARGUMENT Should ALL KFUPM Students Live On-Campus? According to University rules, on-campus accommodation can only be provided to students who live more than about 30 kilometers from the University. Those living nearer must live at home. This composition will discuss the case for allowing all students to live on campus. Supporters of on-campus accommodation for all students point to the academic and social benefits. For example, living on campus means the student is only a 5-minute walk away from academic facilities like the Library and computer labs. Research at Washington State University indicates that this advantage can actually translate into higher grades. Oncampus residents do better socially as well because they can participate in more activities like sports and clubs. They are also free of many of the distractions faced by those living at home like noise and household chores and free of the stress of commuting twice a day. However, opponents of the idea also have a good case. They point out, for example, that not all students want to live on campus; many prefer to live at home with their family, eating good food and enjoying their own private room. On a more practical note, other critics have pointed out that the University campus is not big enough to accommodate all students and that the money would simply not be available for such a large construction project. It is clear that on-campus students enjoy significant academic and social advantages. The objection about the lack of campus space is not serious since multi-storey apartment blocks would solve that problem. The financial objection is important but no university would ever put money before the well-being of its students. In conclusion, I believe there is a very strong case for all students to be allowed to live on campus if they want to. However, first, I recommend that the University surveys offcampus students to find out how great the demand really is.
Your title should be neutral

Introduction
Background Balanced thesis statement. The writer does not reveal his own position.

“For”
The writer gives a fair and balanced account of the reasons and evidence supporting one side of the argument. He is neutral. He does not include any language that indicates if he is for or against this argument.

“Against”
The writer gives a fair and balanced account of the reasons and evidence of the other side of the argument.. He remains neutral. He does not include any language that indicates if he is for or against this argument.

Discussion
In the last part of the argument, the writer discusses and evaluates the evidence. He expresses support for some pieces of evidence and identifies weaknesses in others.

Conclusion
He expresses his point of view. If relevant, he may conclude with a recommendation.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

17

Checklist for Argument
Which method of organization have you chosen to present your argument? The strong argument or the balanced argument The strong argument 1. Do you have a clear idea about your position on the issue—your thesis? 2. Have you thought carefully about the reasons why you believe that your thesis is right? 3. Are you familiar with the counter-arguments? 4. Can you find evidence that supports your argument and refutes your opponent’s? Where will this evidence come from: your own thinking, your reading, your teacher? 5. What sort of appeal would best succeed with your audience (rational, emotional, both)? 6. Does your introduction have two elements: background and thesis statement? Are the two elements logically connected in some way? 7. Is the background information helpful to the reader? 8. Does the thesis statement clearly and strongly state your position on the issue? 9. Have you divided the body of the argument into separate paragraphs? Does each paragraph contain a reason + evidence or counter-arguments? 10. Does each paragraph of the body start with a topic sentence? 11. What type of evidence have you used? Is it convincing? Facts, statistics, examples, expert opinion, personal experience? 12. Have you presented your own position, and that of your opponent, honestly and fairly? 13. Have you written a conclusion for your argument? Does it summarize key points? Does it forcefully re-state the thesis mentioned in the introduction? Is it appropriate to add a recommendation, a warning or some other element? The balanced argument 1. Do you have an introduction consisting of background and a thesis statement? 2. Is your background helpful? Is your thesis statement neutral? 3. Do you give a fair and balanced account of both sides of the argument? 4. Have you excluded all bias from these paragraphs? 5. Do you have a discussion section at the end? 6. Does the discussion section evaluate the evidence? 7. Does the discussion section state a clear point of view based on this discussion? 8. Is it relevant to conclude with a recommendation or a warning?

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

18

Exercise: Suggested topics for writing arguments
Study the following statements. Decide if you agree or disagree with them. Then write a full academic composition on one of these topics using either the strong argument method or the balanced argument method.

1. On leaving high school, it is better to get a job than to continue studying. 2. Smoking should be banned everywhere, even in people’s homes. 3. Students find it better to learn from a textbook than from materials posted online. 4. Telecommuting is the best way to work. 5. Saudi Arabia should do more to encourage foreign tourism, like Bahrain and Dubai. 6. For a KFUPM student, it is better to share a room than to live on your own. 7. The policy of Saudiisation should be implemented in all areas of the workforce. 8. It is better to study at an Arabic-medium university than at an English-medium one. 9. The Internet does more harm than good. 10. It is right that a successful sportsman should earn more money than a teacher or doctor. 11. The Saudi Arabia of a century ago is a better place than the Saudi Arabia of today. 12. Examinations are unfair. Final grades should be based on the work done during the semester. 13. If you have to travel long distances in Saudi Arabia, it is always better to fly than to drive. 14. It is better to be an employee than a manager. 15. We need fast food restaurants. 16. Students should not be forced to attend class as long as they do the necessary work. 17. The most important aspect of a job is the money earned. 18. A university is for studying in and nothing else. 19. It is better to own your own business than to work for someone else. 20. It is better to study for a higher degree in Saudi Arabia than to go abroad to do it. 21. Distance learning is a bad idea: it is better to attend regular classes than to study from home. 22. For a good job, an academic qualification is more useful than job experience. 23. Buying pirated films and computer software should not be illegal. 24. Social networking sites like Facebook are dangerous. 25. Television has become too powerful in our society. 26. The death penalty is always wrong. 27. Teenage crime: we should punish parents for the bad behaviour of their teenage children. 28. Ban all big gas-guzzling cars: they pollute the air and waste a natural resource. 29. Zoos are cruel: we should abolish them. 30. Corporal punishment for school children is the best way to control behaviour. 31. KFUPM students should not wear “western” clothes. 32. Students need more exercise: ban all student cars on campus and make them walk.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

19

Writing Tips: Being Concise
Conciseness is an important characteristic of formal academic English. In a concise piece of writing, all necessary information is provided without wasting a single word. However, being concise is not the same as simply being "brief": many concise pieces of writing are quite long and many brief pieces are not concise. Brevity refers only to length whereas conciseness refers both to completeness and to economy of expression. Achieving conciseness in the first draft is often difficult because the writer's ideas may still not be fully developed and he may be writing under pressure of time. Usually, therefore, writers focus on conciseness when revising their work. To write concisely, a writer must avoid wordiness and needless repetition.

Avoiding Wordiness
A piece of writing is described as "wordy" when the writer uses words which add nothing to the meaning he is trying to convey. These empty words and phrases are not only useless; they can also interfere with the clear communication of information. Writers should therefore eliminate them completely. Wordiness includes …    Empty words and phrases Passive voice Abstract nouns

Avoid empty words and phrases. For example, "now" is usually preferable to "at this point in time"; a simple "to" + infinitive is preferable to "for the purpose of"; "because" is preferable to "due to the fact that"; "if" is preferable to "in the event that," and so on. In addition, it is often possible to eliminate completely such "padding" phrases as "in my opinion," "as far as I am concerned," and the conversational “as a matter of fact.” Finally, do not overuse the expletive construction "There is/are." For example, "Three causes can be identified" is generally preferable to "There are three causes which can be identified." Use the active instead of the passive wherever possible. It is more concise to write "The topic sentence identifies the main idea" than "The main idea is identified by the topic sentence." Apart from needing fewer words, the active voice also makes your writing more direct, more forceful and, often, more readable. There are of course occasions, especially in technical and scientific writing, when the passive is preferable, but you should avoid habitual use of the passive. In general, verbs are preferable to abstract noun constructions. For example, "decision," "recommendation" and "examination" are all noun forms of their respective verbs "decide," "recommend" and "examine." As with passive verbs, ideas expressed as nouns are usually wordier than those expressed with active verbs. In addition, placing the action in an abstract noun rather than in the verb can make your writing seem dull. Compare the following pairs of sentences: • He made a recommendation that we stay. • He has the intention of leaving. • They had an argument. • It produced an adverse effect on them. • They came to the conclusion that it was bad. He recommended we stay. He intends to leave. They argued. It affected them adversely. They concluded that it was bad.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

20

Abstract nouns are of course necessary on numerous occasions. However, whenever writers can choose between placing the action in an abstract noun or in a verb, the latter is almost always better.

Avoiding Needless Repetition
Avoiding Needless Repetition  Lack of appropriate cohesion  Tautology Repetition, for example in the form of parallel structure or the repeating of key words, is useful to the writer as a means of achieving emphasis and cohesion. (See Cohesion in unit 3.) However, needless repetition contributes nothing to the discussion. The repeated words do not clarify the meaning; they slow the reader down and make the writing uninteresting

Many instances of needless repetition result from a lack of appropriate cohesion; they can often be corrected with pronoun reference. Compare the following pair of sentences: The result of the survey was a good result for the sales manager because the result showed the sales manager that he had been right all the time. The result of the survey was good for the sales manager because it showed him that he had been right all the time. Other instances of repetition—often referred to as tautology—result from using different words to say the same thing. This occurs for a variety of different reasons (tautology!). The writer, for example, may not realize that the repeated words and phrases have the same meaning; he may be attempting, needlessly, to clarify a term; or, worst of all, his intention may simply be to "pad out" his writing to conceal his lack of ideas. The italicized phrases below are all redundant: • Several benefits and advantages resulted from his decision. • Alexander Graham Bell is generally referred to as the inventor and originator of the telephone. • Action must be taken immediately, without any further delay. • Many of the unemployed, who had no job at all, were excluded from the government statistics. • Forty percent of the exports leaving the country are petroleum products. Other common examples of tautology include "large in size," "oval in shape," "blue in color," "cooperate together," "true facts," "basic essentials," "disappear from sight," "compete with each other," and "final completion."

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

21

Exercise Being Concise
Make the following sentences more concise.

Example
Tautology: “generally” = “the majority of” Empty words: “it was a known fact” = “knew” Empty words: “the majority of” = “most”

It was a generally known fact among the majority of employees that the company’s new branch, which was a branch located in the city center, involved costs in the region of 100 million dollars.
Empty words: “involved costs” = “cost” Empty words and needless repetition

Empty words: “in the region of” = “around”

More concise: Most employees knew that the company’s new city-center branch cost around 100 million dollars.

1. The principal cause or reason for the ozone hole is thought by scientists to be CFCs. 2. There were three scientists who disagreed with the findings of the committee. 3. The experiment was canceled owing to the fact that the weather was very bad. 4. The researcher had to return back to the laboratory because the researcher had left his notes in the laboratory. 5. The reason for the failure of the experiment was because the equipment used in the experiment was damaged equipment. 6. The majority of people are of the opinion that nuclear energy should not be used for the purpose of providing electrical energy. 7. The interwar years, the period between the First and Second World Wars, were for the most part characterized by a general sense of dissatisfaction which was widespread. 8. The matter will be given thorough and complete consideration by the committee. 9. Quite a few students entered the room during the course of the professor’s lecture but the professor was writing on the blackboard and so he didn’t notice the students who came into the room. 10. The chairman took into consideration the proposal that had been put forward by his committee but in the end he reached the decision that the proposal should be rejected.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

22

Writing Tips: Using Specific Detail
A "good" paragraph is not simply a paragraph which provides "a lot" of support for the topic sentence; it must provide the right kind of support. Quality, in other words, is preferable to quantity. In formal academic writing, specific detail—in the form of concrete examples, exact descriptions, precise historical facts, or statistical information—provides strong support for your main ideas because it gives the reader the complete information he needs. Specific detail contrasts with generalities and broad abstract terms, which are often so vague and imprecise that your reader remains uninformed after reading them. Some examples of this are "inadequate facilities" to describe how poorly equipped a department is; "quite a lot" to explain how many students dropped Mathematics last semester; and "terrible damage" to explain the effects of a hurricane on a small town. Using specific, concrete vocabulary, the writer can inform the reader much more precisely. Using specific detail, the above examples could be changed to "The department has only two computer terminals and two colour printers for every 10 teachers"; "Sixty-four students, very nearly one quarter of the total number, withdrew from Mathematics last semester"; "The hurricane destroyed 150 homes, blew down two bridges, and injured 58 people." General and abstract terms are, of course, sometimes essential. Most topic sentences, for example, are generalizations which may contain abstractions, for example "Success in examinations depends mainly on hard work." However, the writer must aim to support these general ideas with specific, concrete detail. Whether the required support is taken from a reading source or from your own thinking, always make the extra effort to inform your reader as fully as necessary. Compare the amount of specific detail in the two paragraphs below.
Automobiles powered by gasoline are very inefficient machines. Most of the energy available from the fuel is lost somewhere in the engine. Some is lost in the drive-train mechanism, some is lost by friction in certain moving parts, and some is lost to operate some of the car’s accessories. The remaining energy, very little compared with the total available energy, is used to propel the vehicle. Automobiles powered by gasoline are very inefficient machines. Approximately two thirds of the energy available from the fuel is lost in the engine through the exhaust and cooling systems. About 10% of the available energy is lost in the drive-train mechanism, mainly through friction in the transmission and drive shaft. A further 6% of energy is lost in other moving parts such as the motor, while 4% of the available energy is used to operate fuel and oil pumps and certain accessories like power steering, airconditioning, and power brakes. The remaining energy, a mere 14% of the total, is used to propel the vehicle.

The precise amount of specific detail you give to support your ideas depends on your particular purpose and on the needs of your readers. In the above examples, the text on the left could be suitable for a high school student with a low-level interest in fuel efficiency. By contrast, the text containing specific detail would satisfy a freshman ME student who needs, and is able to understand, a more in-depth analysis of the same topic. Providing specific detail for your audience is a feature of all good writing but is particularly relevant in persuasive writing. When you are arguing your case, the reader will seldom be convinced by generalizations and unsupported opinions; you must provide him whenever possible with specific detail in the form of verifiable facts, concrete examples, expert opinion and relevant personal experience.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

23

Compare the two paragraphs below which both argue against abolishing the death penalty. Which paragraph is the more persuasive? Why?
Abolishing the death penalty increases the murder rate. It is a fact that many countries which have abolished the death penalty have seen the number of murders increase since abolition. This clearly shows that the threat of the death penalty is a strong deterrent. In addition to this, a number of murderers who have been released from prison after serving a “life sentence” then went on to commit murder again. Obviously, this could not have happened if there had been a death penalty in existence in their country. It is very clear from this evidence that having the death penalty will significantly reduce a country’s murder rate and bring about a much safer country where the people can live in peace and security. 123 words Abolishing the death penalty increases the murder rate. For example, in Britain, the death penalty was abolished in 1964 and in the following 40 years, the rate of unlawful killing increased from 0.68 per 100,000 of the population to 1.42 per 100,000. In addition, a number of murderers released from prison after serving a “life sentence” went on to commit murder again. In that same 40-year period, 76 murders were committed by convicted murderers who had been released. Obviously, these murders could not have been committed if there had been a death penalty. All this evidence suggests that abolishing capital punishment will result in a higher murder rate. 108 words

Notice that the paragraph on the left is longer than the other paragraph even though it contains much less specific detail. The writer has “padded out” his small amount of information to make it seem that he has a lot of relevant ideas; he has also included wordy expressions of certainty (such as “it is a fact,” “this clearly shows” and “it is very clear”) to make his argument appear to be much stronger than it actually is. His paragraph therefore is neither as convincing nor as concise as the other paragraph.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

24

REMEDIAL WORK—Review
During the semester, remedial work on grammar and sentence structure has focused on the following areas: 1. Relative clauses in formal sentence definitions (unit 1) 2. Subject – Verb agreement (unit 2) 3. Pronoun – antecedent agreement (unit 2) 4. Sentence fragments (unit 3) 5. Run-on sentences (unit 3) The following questions also deal with grammar and structures from: 6. Definition 7. Causal analysis 8. Comparison

The grammar and sentence structure questions on the following page can be worked through individually in class or completed as a 30-item quiz testing the semester’s remedial work. No more than 25 minutes should be allocated.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

25

REMEDIAL WORK QUIZ
NAME: ID: SEC/SN:

The quiz has 30 questions. Write A, B, C or D in the Answer Box on the last page of the quiz. Part A. Choose the correct answer 1. The research group has delayed _____ decision until tomorrow. A. its B. his C. their D. her 2. A stethoscope is an instrument _______ to listen to a patient’s heart or breathing. A. which used by doctors B. doctors use it C. which doctors use it D. doctors use 3. The chairman, together with all the board members, _______ to arrive early for the meeting. A. were required B. was required 4. Ali was five minutes late for _______ had already started. A. class, the lesson B. class the lesson C. class; the lesson D. class, however, the lesson 5. _______ Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Jordan are ruled by kings. A. Unlike B. Same C. Like D. Similar 6. If the sides of a cube _______ 2 centimeters long, _____ volume will be 8 cm3. A. are ..... their B. is ..... its C. are ..... its D. is ..... their 7. One important difference between seif sand dunes and barchan sand dunes _______ that the former _______ usually much higher. A. are ..... is B. is ..... are C. is ..... is D. are ..... are

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

26

8. Dammam, the largest city in the Eastern Province, _______ a population of around threequarters of a million people. A. have B. it has C. has D. having 9. A parallelogram is a geometrical shape _______ opposite sides are parallel and of equal length. A. which its B. who’s C. which D. whose 10. Everybody attended the meeting; one of its aims _______ the new chairman. A. was to elect B. to elect C. were to elect D. elect 11. His car broke down on the _______ three hours for a tow truck to arrive. A. highway because it took B. highway, it took C. highway and it took D. highway it took 12. One of the most famous women authors _______ Agatha Christie. ________ wrote mystery novels. A. was ..... He B. were ..... She C. was ..... Who D. was ..... She 13. _______ Bahrain Airport is easily accessible from Saudi Arabia, many travellers from the Kingdom fly from there rather than from Dammam Airport. A. Because of B. However, C. Since D. So, 14. Statistics _______ defined as a branch of mathematics _______ with the collection, arrangement and interpretation of numerical data. A. is ..... it deals B. are ..... dealing C. is ..... which deals D. are ..... which deal

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

27

15. Any KFUPM student interested in working in the Library this summer should send _______ details to the Dean as soon as possible. A. its B. her C. their D. his 16. The family usually _______ their vacations in Egypt but next year _______ going to Turkey. A. spends ..... it is B. spend ..... they are C. spends ..... he is D. spend ..... it is 17. Galen, one of the most famous Ancient Greek scientists, _______ an expert on anatomy and physiology. A. were B. he was C. was D. they were 18. An amphibian can be defined simply as a species of animal _______ both on land and in water. A. that lives B. that live C. it lives D. they live 19. Traditional energy sources include finite fossil fuel pollutants like coal and petroleum. _______ alternative sources like solar, tidal and wind power are clean and renewable. _______ the energy they produce is more expensive. A. Similarly, ..... However, B. Likewise, ..... So, C. In contrast, ..... However, D. In addition, ..... Likewise, 20. The process of researching, writing and publishing a book _______ several years of work but the financial reward obtained rarely _______ the effort. A. involves ..... justifies B. involve ..... justify C. involves ..... justify D. involve ..... justifies Part B. Identify the error
Choose A, B, C or D.

A. B. 21. Statistics covering the past decade show that the number of students graduating from C. KFUPM have shown a steady increase every year. However, some colleges have lost D. students while others have gained them over this period.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

28

A. B. 22. A student slipped on the workshop floor this morning. Because he had not seen the C small patch of oil that had spilled from a leaky container. He hit his head on a chair leg D and was taken to the clinic for medical attention. A. B. 23. Three materials are typically used to manufacture pipes. These are metal, rubber and C. plastic. They differ from one another according to strength, weight and flexibility, with D. metal generally being stronger, heavier and less flexible as the other two. A. 24. People have always been fascinated by the idea of space travel, that’s why so many B. TV sets were tuned into the moon landing in July 1969. Since then, space travel C. D. has advanced a great deal but no man has yet landed on a planet. A. B. 25. As the temperature rises, air increases in volume so, for example, a cubic meter of cold C. D. air is heavier than the same volume of warm air. As a result, the warm air rise and cold air moves in to take its place. A. B. 26. Because the helicopter is capable of hovering above the ground in the same position, C. D. they are particularly useful in rescue missions such as saving people from sinking ships or burning buildings. A. 27. DNA is the basic genetic material of most living organisms. Although the DNA B. C. molecule is large and apparently complex, but it is in fact very simple. A single DNA D. molecule, for example, consists of just two strands wound around each other.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

29

A. 28. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, produced by burning fossil fuels like coal B. C. and petroleum, is increasing in the atmosphere. Scientists believe that these gases trap heat D. that would otherwise escape into space. A. B. 29. The crust and the mantle comprise two of the three layers that make up the earth. While C. the crust has an average thickness of less than 10 kilometers. The mantle, located between D. crust and core, reaches a depth of almost 3000 kms. A. 30. In the context of railways, the term “gauge” can be defined as the distance between the B. C. two rails. There are three basic gauges, they are the standard, narrow and broad gauges. In addition, to accommodate trains with different gauges, a third rail is sometimes laid, D. and this is referred to as a mixed gauge.

WRITE ALL YOUR ANSWERS (A, B, C or D) IN THE BOXES BELOW: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

SCORE:

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

30

VOCABULARY: AWL 6
In this unit, you must also study Word Formation 4 (on the following page). 300. abstract 301. accurate 302. acknowledged 303. aggregate 304. allocation 305. assigned 306. attached 307. author 308. bond 309. brief 310. capable 311. cited 312. cooperative 313. discrimination 314. display 315. diversity 316. domain 317. edition 318. enhanced 319. estate 320. exceed 321. expert 322. explicit 323. federal 324. fees 325. flexibility 326. furthermore 327. gender 328. ignored 329. incentive 330. incidence 331. incorporated 332. index 333. inhibition 334. initiatives 335. input 336. instructions 337. intelligence 338. interval 339. lecture 340. migration 341. minimum 342. ministry 343. motivation 344. neutral 345. nevertheless 346. overseas 347. preceding 348. presumption 349. rational 350. recovery 351. revealed 352. scope 353. subsidiary 354. tapes 355. trace 356. transformation 357. transport 358. underlying 359. utility

For the vocabulary section of your final exam, you should review the following vocabulary: Academic Word Lists 1 to 6 Word Formation units 1 to 4

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

31

WORD FORMATION 4
Unit 4 prefixes and roots

PREFIXES
40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. pre post pro retro re trans ultra para fore tele auto before after forwards, before backwards again, back across, through, change beyond beyond, protect before, previous far self 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. port dict pose, pone sed, sid ped, pod ven aqua, hydro rupt son, phon vol

ROOTS carry say put sit foot come water break sound want

Examples Prefixes 1. Pre-war, the country had a successful economy; post-war, it depended totally on foreign aid. 2. After all the recent progress, the new policy was seen as a retrograde step. 3. The teacher asked Ali to rewrite his composition before returning it to him the next day. 4. The glass used in windows is usually a transparent material. 5. Humans cannot hear ultrasonic sounds but many animals can. 6. Few people believe in paranormal activity such as ghosts. 7. In Saudi Arabia the weather forecast rarely changes for weeks. 8. As work becomes more flexible, telecommuting will increase in popularity. 9. Mass production in the early twentieth century saw the start of industrial-scale automation. Roots 1. Massive supertankers are used for the international transportation of crude oil. 2. The results of the experiment contradicted all expectations. 3. When the main speaker cancelled, the conference had to be postponed till the following week. 4. The company chairman presided at the meeting attended by ten committee members. 5. The scientist placed the flask on the tripod and lit the bunsen burner. 6. The council members were asked to convene at 10am the following day. 7. The Ancient Romans built aqueducts to transfer drinking water from one place to another. 8. He worked for too long in the hot sun and became dehydrated. 9. His sleep was continually disrupted by the translocation of the highway near his home. 10. The plane's sonic boom could be heard miles away. 11. The study of a language's phonetic system can help learners acquire a better accent. 12. Nobody forced Ali to work so late; he did it of his own volition.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

32

PRESENTATIONS: Argument
Unit 4 presentations on argument could be made individually or in pairs. For individual presentations, using the “balanced argument” method is recommended. For pairs of students, the “strong argument” method could be more suitable with one student arguing for and the other against a proposition. Students may choose their own argument topic or the teacher could assign it. Some example topics, taken from this unit’s composition component are listed below: 1. On leaving high school, it is better to get a job than to continuing studying. 2. Smoking should be banned everywhere, even in people’s homes. 3. Students find it better to learn from a textbook than from materials posted online. 4. Telecommuting is the best way to do a job. 5. Saudi Arabia should do more to encourage foreign tourism, like Bahrain and Dubai. 6. For a KFUPM student, it is better to share a room than to live on your own. 7. The policy of Saudiisation should be implemented in all areas of the workforce. 8. It is better to study at an Arabic-medium university than at an English-medium one like KFUPM. 9. The Internet does more harm than good. 10. It is right that a successful sportsman should earn more money than a teacher or doctor. 11. The Saudi Arabia of a century ago is a better place than the Saudi Arabia of today. 12. Examinations are unfair. Final grades should be based on the work done during the semester. 13. If you have to travel long distances in Saudi Arabia, it is always better to fly than to drive. 14. It is better to be an employee than a manager. 15. Fast food restaurants serve a useful purpose. 16. Students should not be forced to attend class as long as they do the necessary work. 17. The most important aspect of a job is the money earned. 18. A university is for studying in and nothing else. 19. It is better to own your own business than to work for someone else. 20. It is better to study for a higher degree in Saudi Arabia than to go abroad to do it. 21. Distance learning is a bad idea: it is better to attend regular classes than to study from home. 22. For a good job, an academic qualification is more useful than job experience. 23. Buying pirated films and computer software should not be illegal. 24. Social networking sites like Facebook are dangerous. 25. Television has become too powerful in our society. 26. The death penalty is always wrong. 27. Teenage crime: we should punish parents for the bad behaviour of their teenage children. 28. All big gas-guzzling cars pollute the air and waste a natural resource. They should be banned. 29. Zoos are cruel: we should abolish them. 30. Corporal punishment at home and at school. 31. KFUPM students should not wear “western” clothes. 32. Students need more exercise: ban all student cars on campus and make them walk.

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

33

Checklist for English 101 oral presentations Does the student give his presentation within the set time limits? Does he introduce himself and identify the topic? Does he show clear divisions between different parts of his speech? Does he speak loudly, slowly and clearly enough to be easily understood? Does he pronounce his words, especially key words, correctly? Does he use grammar correctly? Does his voice sound natural and relaxed? Does he sound interested and enthusiastic? Is his delivery confident and authoritative? Does he occasionally use Arabic without realising it (shismuh)? Does he have any voice mannerisms that need eliminating (coughs, “okay?”, “errr”, “right”)? Is he dependent on reading his presentation? Does any memorisation sound unnatural? Does he position himself correctly at the front of the class? Does he move and make appropriate gestures that support his speech? Does he maintain eye contact with his audience? Does he end his speech effectively?

A marking sheet A simple marking sheet is given below. Teachers are free to modify it or use their own. English 101 Oral Presentation Marking Form Name: Presentation topic: 1. Delivery: 2. Body language: 3. Content: 4. Organization: 5. Overall impression: Additional comments: Grade: ID#: SEC/SN:

An Introduction to Academic Discourse (4th ed.) 2014-2015

page

34