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合纵、连横的启示──组织行为学的视角

2000多年前的战国时代,是一个极富创造力的时代。那个时候各种思想涌现,各国之间由于采用不同的学说指导管理,而在几十年间迅速分化,有的由弱至强,有的由强变弱。而也仅在那个时期,个人可以通过观点被不同国家采纳,实现自我抱负,各个国家之间由于采用了不同的理念,组成联盟,或者拆散联盟。如果套上今日组织行为学的视角去理解,是一个极其丰富的时代,基本上可以包含当代组织行为学理论中的各类实例。今天,我们就其中的一段特殊时期,即合纵、连横的时期进行讨论,在其中我们看到在纷乱和平等的环境中没有任何背景的个人如何奋斗、个人如何影响群体、群体如何形成组织、组织如何运转和破坏、新组织如何成立的种种现象。

历史时间描述

合纵与连横兴起与发展,主要发生在战国中后期,与秦国有密切联系。如果从历史发展的角度看,基本上是从秦国崛起、六国合纵对抗秦国、各国连横秦国最后秦国消灭六国这一时期。

所谓合纵,是“合众弱以抗一强”,主要是指六国相对弱小的国家联合起来对抗强大的秦国,由于这六国地理上为南北分布,所以成为“合纵”,俗称“抱成团”,主要代表人物为苏秦;而所谓“连横”则是“事一强以攻众弱”,是指相对弱小的各国分别与秦组成联盟,依附强国形成对相邻弱国的优势,由于各国与秦国地理上大多为东西走向,故称为“连横”,俗称“傍粗腿”,主要代表人物为张仪。

秦国崛起

我们看到,无论“合纵”还是“连横”都与秦有关,为什么会这样呢?这还是要从秦国崛起说起。

最初在战国七雄中,秦是比较落后的国家,“六国卑秦,不与之盟”,当时秦被称为西戎。公元前361年,新国君秦孝公即位。他感到秦国外受强邻的欺压,内有贵族的专横,决心奋发图强,改变国家的落后面貌。
于是秦孝公采用商鞅的一系列变法措施,包括:

(1)编制户口,加强刑罚 (有利于加强中央集权)

(2)鼓励发展农业,奖励生产(有利于秦国经济的发展)

(3)奖励军功,取消世卿世禄制(有利于军队战斗力的提高,同时,触犯了旧奴隶主贵族的利益)

(4)废井田,开阡陌,承认土地私有(确立地主阶级统治最为关键的一项,以法律形式正式确立土地私有制)

(5)推行县制,由国君直接派官吏治理。

(6) 整顿秦国社会风俗,强制推行一夫一妻的小家庭制度,并规定父子及成年兄弟不得同居一室,到成年还不分家的,加倍征收户口税

(7)实行二十等爵制度

(8)编订户口,五家为伍,十家为什,相互监督,一家犯法,邻里如不告发,则十家连坐。

为了变法能够很好的贯彻和执行,商鞅采取了特殊的手段和方式,包括大家所熟悉的“徙木取信”和“太子犯法与民同罪”等,让人民群众认识到商鞅说道做到,有公信力,而且法治的严格执行没有任何例外和特权可讲。
经过商鞅变法,秦国废除了奴隶主贵族的世袭特权,促进了经济的发展;形成了高度的中央集权国家体系;军队战斗力不断加强,领土不断扩张,发展成为战国后期最富强的国家。

苏秦与合纵

至秦而不得用
苏秦学成下山之后,先到了实力最强的秦国,希望自己能有用武之地,于是投入了全部家产,去秦国游说。当时秦孝公已卒,孝公的继承者秦惠文王刚刚斩了商鞅,讨厌与商鞅相类似的政治主张,而苏秦却极力推崇商鞅的观点,故而苏秦没有在秦国得到什么机会。
结果苏秦在秦国遭遇了彻底的失败,主张不被采纳,钱财也散尽了,回到家里也没有人搭理。但是苏秦并没有放弃,反而“头悬梁、锥刺股”,用了三年时间,精心准备另外一条出路──“六国合纵”。

苏秦游说六国
应该说,要想促成六国合纵,是非常艰难的事情,因为各国强弱不同、地理位置不同、受到的威胁和利益也不同,且各国之间还存在矛盾。如何让这六国能够搁置争议,形成联盟,合纵抗秦呢?苏秦采用了非常独特的游说方式,从相对弱小的国家去游说,最后游说实力最强的国家;而且对于每个国家的君王,根据其性格和所处地位不同,采用了不同的游说策略。
说燕
苏秦对燕文侯说,燕国受到赵国的威胁要大于秦国的,所以要联合赵国来保全燕国。于是苏秦得燕国器重。
说赵
苏秦对赵肃侯说,赵国处于关键的地方,对于六国有所偏移,则最终对自己不利,而联合六国,可以有效地制衡秦国,成就霸业。于是赵王也给苏秦钱财,器重与他,让他去联合其他的国家。
说韩
苏秦对韩王说,韩国士兵勇猛,装备精良,但韩王却始终甘愿当牛后(屁股),激怒韩王使其专心合纵。
说魏
苏秦对魏襄王说,魏国内部主张与秦连横的大臣都有私心,如果连横秦国,则每次秦国来侵占土地,都需要割地求全,但是土地是有限的,最终必然国灭。这样魏襄王同意合纵。
说齐
对实力较强的齐国,苏秦对齐王说齐国与秦不接壤,秦国不可能跨过魏国攻打齐国,而且齐国地势险要,不易受到进攻。结盟对齐国来说没有威胁,但是却能从中分取胜利果实。

说楚
苏秦说楚威王说,六国中其他各国已经联合,楚国不参与,则将被五国和秦国孤立,必然为秦国所攻。由于其他国家都已同意合纵,楚威王也就同意合纵了。
经过这样的一番游说, 在苏秦的组织下,六国的将相在洹水之上聚会,相互沟通故有的嫌隙,杀白马歃血盟誓,彼此制订盟约:“秦攻楚,齐、魏各出锐师以佐之,韩绝其粮道,赵涉河漳,燕守常山之北。秦攻韩魏,则楚绝其后, 齐出锐师而佐之,赵涉河漳,燕守云中。秦攻齐,则楚绝其后,韩守城皋,魏塞其道,赵涉河漳、博关,燕出锐师以佐之。秦攻燕,则赵守常山,楚军武关,齐涉勃海,韩、魏皆出锐师以佐之。秦攻赵,则韩军宜阳,楚军武关,魏军河外, 齐涉清河,燕出锐师以佐之。诸侯有不如约者,以五国之兵共伐之。” 苏秦成为纵约长,披六国相印。苏秦既约六国从亲,赵肃侯封为武安君,给秦国下了《纵约书》,秦国十五年不敢出函谷关。

合纵成功后的一段时间,六国相对遵守盟约,经历了一段相对和平的时期。但是随着时间推移,六国间的利益冲突逐渐显露出来,开始出现彼此之间的争端,出现了合纵的危机。其中,齐国联合魏国攻击赵国,导致赵王大怒,认为苏秦没有处理好合纵联盟,而使得赵国陷入困境,加之其他大臣争宠诋毁,苏秦担心被赵王处死,因此逃亡到了燕国。在燕国,苏秦受到了良好的待遇,但却与燕易王的母亲私通,被发现后自愿离开燕国,到齐国做卧底间谍。结果不久之后遭遇刺客被刺杀。自苏秦死后,六国的合纵联盟也就很快土崩瓦解了。

张仪与连横
与苏秦相同,张仪也是鬼谷子的弟子。下山后四处游说,有一次到了楚国相国家中做客,结果席间丢失了一块玉璧,楚相国门人认为张仪出身最差,一定是张仪所盗,就将其毒打得面目全非。她夫人在帮他清理伤口时,他却让夫人帮他看看自己的舌头是否还在,因为只要舌头在,自己就能有成功的一天。

张仪到了秦国后,主张通过连横,拆散六国合纵,使之逐个归附于秦国。张仪首先的突破口选择的是魏国。为了达到这一目标,张仪说服秦王,秦国主动将占焦、曲沃二地归还于魏,并派公子繇出质于魏,谋求和好;散布谣言,说秦与韩要结盟,魏国容易受二者钳制夹击;并跟魏王说,秦的目标是楚,如果魏国与秦夹击楚国,必定大胜,可共享胜利果实。魏王欣然同意,并将上郡十五县献给了秦国,并与秦签订盟约。合纵联盟开始松动,但可惜的是一年之后,魏国又重新回到合纵联盟中。张仪第一次连横的计划失败了。
张仪认为要实行“连横”,非把“合纵”联盟中最强的齐国和楚国的联盟拆散不可。他向秦惠文王献了个计策,就到楚国去了。张仪到了楚国,先拿贵重的礼物送给楚怀王手下的宠臣靳尚,求见楚怀王。张仪说:“秦王特地派我来跟贵国交好。要是大王下决心跟齐国断交,秦王不但情愿跟贵国永远和好,还愿意把商于(今河南淅川县西南)一带六百里的土地献给贵国。这样一来,既削弱了齐国的势力,又得了秦国的信任,岂不是两全其美。”楚怀王是个糊涂虫,经张仪一游说,就挺高兴地说:“秦国要是真能这么办,我何必非要拉着齐国不撒手呢?”楚怀王听信张仪的话,一面跟齐国绝交,一面派人跟着张仪到秦国去接收商于。齐宣王听说楚国同齐国绝交,马上打发使臣去见秦惠文王,约他一同进攻楚国。楚国的使者到咸阳去接收商于,想不到张仪翻脸不认账,使者回来一回报,气得楚怀王直翻白眼,发兵十万人攻打秦国。秦惠文王也发兵十万人迎战,同时还约了齐国助战。楚国一败涂地。十万人马只剩了两三万,不但商于六百里地没到手,连楚国汉中六百里的土地也给秦国夺了去。楚怀王只好忍气吞声地向秦国求和,楚国从此大伤元气。

张仪用欺骗手段收服了楚国,后来又先后到齐国、赵国、燕国,说服各国诸侯“连横”亲秦。这样,六国“合纵”联盟终于被张仪拆散了。

在合纵、连横的近百年时间内,苏秦和张仪通过个人人格魅力和游说策略与技巧,使得各个国家之间进行不同的联合,以谋求自身利益的最大化。从组织行为学的观点看,其中包含了大量可分析的内容。

首先我们看秦国的崛起。我们通常简单的认为,秦国崛起是商鞅变法的功劳,但为什么会有这样的效果呢,我们利用组织行为学中的个人、群体和组织三个维度进行分析。
从群体的角度看,商鞅变法要得以实施,并取得相应的效果,需要群众的理解和支持。商鞅首先通过徙木取信的方法,即下令如果谁能把一块木头从东门移到西门就赏50金,并且有人做到后真的履行承诺,给予重赏;另一方面,对于群众中有罚不责众的心态,通过惩治太子的违法行为,明确法令面前的平等性。这些行为大众口口相传,利用群里跟随从众效应,使得群众认识到变法中的赏罚都是说到做到,这样变法的约束力和效力都大大增强了。
从组织的角度看,秦国破除了原有的分封组织体系,形成了郡县制的中央集权的组织体系。这一组织体系影响了中国两千多年,到现在仍然是中国的国家组织体系基础。分封的组织体系,由于权利下放到分封诸侯,国君容易失去管理的主导权;而通过郡县制的中央集权,国君控制了军队,控制了地方官员的任免,这样的组织架构对于变法强制执行、举国动员进行战争以及消除国家内部的不同声音,都是非常合适的。于是秦国在当时的战争环境中,几乎没有内乱而且能快速组织对外扩张的战争的主要原因。
从个人的角度看,六国称秦国军队为虎狼之师,并非秦国军队本身就凶猛好斗。而是商鞅很好的进行了个人激励。首先,将原有的井田分封破除,实行土地私有化,只要愿意开垦荒地而且能够按比例交租,那就能拥有土地,而且能够保证一家老小的温饱。由于原来很多人都是封建领主的奴隶,这种刺激政策使得奴隶们看到了自由的希望。同时,秦国将原有的等级爵位制度进行改革,共分为20级,爵位的不同意味着拥有土地的不同,即个人财产的不同。而获得更高级的爵位,主要是靠军功,如果在战场上杀了3个普通士兵,或者1个军官都可以升一级,当然证据是敌人的首级。这种“战争改变命运”的激励机制,在没有增加国家财政压力的同时,使得秦国士兵人人渴望战争,而且到战场上拼命砍敌人首级,不仅秦国的军队战斗力大大增强,而且对其他国家的士兵,心理上也是极大的打击。

从这几方面看,我们就不难理解秦国为什么能通过短短二三十年,管理、经济和军事都迅速发展,从一个弱国变成了让其他六国胆寒的强大国家的。

苏秦与合纵

六国合纵对抗秦国,从道理上讲是很容易的事。但是实际操作却是困难重重,如何让六个国家搁置现有的分歧,接受合纵主张,形成联盟,并很好的运转下去,这是非常困难的。在这其中,苏秦无疑起了非常重要的作用。
分析苏秦促成合纵的原因,主要有如下几个方面:
准备充分:用3年时间对各国形势、国君个人性格进行分析和准备。构建了未来美好的合纵组织图景。在此过程中,充分展现了苏秦个人坚韧的性格和非凡的洞察与决策能力
策略得当:要分别游说六国国君,而且普通人见国君谈话的次数、时间都是有限的,如果在任何一国苏秦的主张不能一次性获得国君认可,那六国合纵就仅仅只是一个梦想了。苏秦采用由小及大的游说策略,先攻下燕国和赵国,通过激将法搞定魏国和韩国,到了最强大的齐国和楚国时,由于已经有4个国家支持合纵,齐国和楚国的国君不免会落入群体从众陷阱,使得最终六国国君都同意合纵
各个击破:苏秦针对各国国君的性格不同、各国利益不同,对不同的国君采用了不同的游说技巧。这一方面符合权变和情境理论中的谈判技巧。苏秦在游说过程中正确的使用了个体行为刺激,有的采用摆事实讲道理的方式、有的采用了羞辱刺激的方式、有的则采用了画大饼谈趋势的方式,最终取得了预期的效果

对于合纵,是一种全新的组织方式,在纷乱的战争环境下,弱小的各国抱成团确实是与强敌抗衡的一种创新机制。但是否合纵是一种完美的合作模式呢?我们可以通过六国合纵的SWOT 分析来简略研究一下:

从SWOT分析中我们不难看出,虽然合纵能够整合各国资源,但是其内部问题和外部的威胁同样非常严重,如果处理不当,是非常容易被攻破的。

合纵的失败原因

合纵成功后15年内,不仅有效的震慑了秦国,使其不敢兵出函谷关进攻其他国家,但是最终合纵联盟却已分崩离析而告失败。究其原因,虽然有秦国的连横策略对其的破坏和制约,但根本原因还是合纵组织的自身问题。
首先,合纵联盟是一个依赖于盟约的松散组织,盟约中约定六国中任何一国受到秦国侵犯,那么其他国家都联合多方面抵御。这种松散的组织方式,没有任何相应的规范制度、流程和结构化管理体系,完全是一种应激性的临时组织,不具备符合各成员长远利益的组织结构设计与约定
六国合纵,意味着各个成员之间需要进行充分的协调,以统一意见和行动。而这种六国间的协调,也没有一个清晰的组织和规范来进行。而是完全依赖于纵约长苏秦的个人魅力。随着各国利益冲突的加剧,苏秦在协调过程中必然不能做到面面俱到,会导致协调人信用的降低。这样,纵约长的威信和号召能力也是一个逐渐衰竭的过程。
合纵组织中的沟通,依赖纵约长苏秦作为核心的轮式沟通。这种沟通模式最大的问题是在于各成员间的不满和猜忌,会转移到苏秦身上。事实也证明,正是由于这一原因,导致了苏秦后来从赵国逃亡到燕国,并最终在齐国遇刺的结局。
合纵的盟约,是一个共同对外的防御的约定方式。但各国利益如何平衡,比如粮草物资如何准备和分摊,获得胜利后成果如何分配,都模糊不清。这为六国利益不均而产生冲突埋下了伏笔
六国冲突危机发生后,没有很好的冲突解决手段。以至于六国之间的冲突被秦国利用,组织不复存在。
苏秦作为纵约长,挂六国相印,但个人并没有管理好自己。首先是接受赵国的武安君封号,使得其他国家认为苏秦根本上是服务于赵国的;然后在燕国时又与燕易王母亲私通,导致其不能在燕国待下去;去了齐国,被怀疑是间谍。由于个人信誉的丧失,作为纵约长的角色,在协调六国关系时受到质疑,组织中没有了信任,必然崩溃。

张仪与连横
秦国为了摆脱合纵联盟对其的制约,自然想拆散六国合纵,而最佳的策略就是开展连横外交攻势,让六国中的各国脱离合纵联盟,转而加入与秦的连横联盟,这样不仅巩固和增强了己方力量,也可以消弱并打破合纵的组织。在这其中,张仪是最为典型的代表。
促成连横从难度上看,其实比促成六国合纵要相对容易,因为有强大的秦国作为后盾。但是六国合纵已有多年,想使其自然解散,也并非理所当然的事情。从个人特质看,张仪也是一个有明确目标且能够为之努力和坚持的人,换句话说,其自我激励非常强。这一点从其在楚国被打后关心舌头的情况就能看出来。也只有具备这样的特质,才能在周围都是敌人的情况下,几次出入魏、楚、齐、赵等各国,为了实现连横策略,深入虎穴进行威逼利诱,最终获得成功。
从打破合纵,实现连横的策略上看,同样非常值得研究。张仪首先希望突破的是魏国,但是作为这样一个地理上战略位置重要,但是实力弱小的摇摆国家,左右逢源也是其一种生存之道,所以朝秦暮楚,虽然连横成功,但是过不了多久便又成为合纵的一员。所以,张仪后来的策略是把突破口定位在最强大的楚国和齐国上,一旦组织中最强大两个部分分裂,那整个组织的其他部分也就容易攻陷。
同样我们可以从SWOT 分析中看出,各国国君在利益权衡时连横的优势并不那么一边倒。

张仪采用了欺骗的方式对付楚王,虽然从道义上讲这种方式不应当提倡,但是从军事和外交策略上,无疑是最小代价获得最大收益的方式。

连横成功原因分析
合纵组织没有解决好组织中各成员长期利益如何分配的问题,造成组织长期的不稳定性,这样各成员容易被自己的短期利益所诱惑而忽略共同的长期利益。这一点被张仪充分利用并不断放大
六国虽然合纵,但是其沟通方式决定了信息的不对称性。在这样的环境中,各个成员之间容易形成“囚徒困境”,即当有国家与秦连横后,张仪鼓吹不愿与秦结盟的国家必然受攻击,群体中的各个国家会产生一种抢先结盟则受攻击的可能性小的一种囚徒决策,国君在决策时产生连横利益优于合纵利益的非理性判断。
松散组织中的群体从众效应。当发现楚国和齐国都分别与秦结盟后,赵、魏、韩等国都争着要根秦结盟了。
相对于合纵而言,连横的组织方式简单稳定,仅为二元关系,即秦与其他各国分别结盟的方式。这种方式从组织维护、沟通和利益定义与分配上,都比六国合纵组织要容易和牢靠
最后,张仪所处位置仅对秦负责,相当于秦的代理人。不会产生苏秦那样在六国中无法摆正位置而产生的信任危机。

对我们的启示

合纵与连横,虽然是距离当今2000多年前的历史事件,但是对于我们当前有很好的参考和借鉴意义。

对当前世界政治和经济环境的理解
有了合纵连横的经验,我们就不难理解当前世界上的众多联盟问题。
欧盟为什么要追求政治和经济一体化;中国为什么始终要提第三世界,并不断为非洲各个落后国家搞经济支援与建设;这些都是为了形成联盟以对抗强大的邻居。而包括中美建交、颜色革命等事件为什么会得到那么高的评价并且广为宣传,其实都是为了破坏“合纵”联盟撕开的突破口,形成新的联盟环境。

对我们的启示

合纵与连横,虽然是距离当今2000多年前的历史事件,但是对于我们当前有很好的参考和借鉴意义。

对当前世界政治和经济环境的理解
有了合纵连横的经验,我们就不难理解当前世界上的众多联盟问题。
欧盟为什么要追求政治和经济一体化;中国为什么始终要提第三世界,并不断为非洲各个落后国家搞经济支援与建设;这些都是为了形成联盟以对抗强大的邻居。而包括中美建交、颜色革命等事件为什么会得到那么高的评价并且广为宣传,其实都是为了破坏“合纵”联盟撕开的突破口,形成新的联盟环境。

对于行业竞争模式的启示
反观我们身处的行业,在激烈的竞争面前,合纵、连横的模式也屡见不鲜,从历史教训中,我们也不难看出某些相似和规律。以近年来风云变换的手机行业而言,苹果的出现和崛起,彻底打破了原有手机行业的格局和竞争优势,传统的手机龙头诺基亚、摩托罗拉、索尼爱立信等受到极大冲击,在苹果这样的强敌面前,摩托罗拉率先转身,投入到包括HTC、三星、LG等以安卓为操作系统的阵营中,结果是通过安卓的应用和推广,不仅有效阻止了苹果的攻势,而且三星在此次联盟中迅速成长,成为安卓最大的收益者;而摩托罗拉也从濒临灭亡的边缘起死回生,仍在手机市场中占据一席之地。反观诺基亚,之前固守自身的塞班平台,不愿与其他厂商联盟,结果脱离主流技术潮流,市场份额一落千丈,之后又匆匆与微软联盟,殊不知与微软的联盟又始终被微软所钳制。短短几年间,诺基亚不仅失去手机市场龙头地位,反而陷入了深深危机中。

对当前公司内工作方式的启示
以我们的年龄和资历,大多数现在在当前公司中,都仅属于中低层,言微权轻,但如果我们很好的借鉴合纵、连横中的经验,其实可以从很多方面让我们的工作更加有效。例如,很多时候自己的意见和建议不能够很好的被领导听取和采纳,是否可以考虑寻找各个部门中的利益相关者,与他们广泛沟通,形成一个虚拟的联盟,将个人建议转换为群体建议,这样被接受的可能性将大大提高。同样,当我们的工作推进出现困难时,可以适当考虑连横策略,与相对推进容易且影响大的部分绑定,往往可以事半功倍。

最后,让我们回到组织行为学看问题的框架,从个人、组织和群体的角度出发,来认识合纵、连横的案例,我们有如下的认识:
从个人角度
对大多数个人而言,要善于利用个体激励,包括个人自身内部激励,也包括来源与组织和群体的外部激励。
个人努力固然重要,也需要聪明的工作。需要正确的借助合作伙伴,形成合力来实现目标
个人虽然力量看似渺小,但是通过正确的方法可以很好的影响群体,也可以影响组织;另一方面,个人行为和决策也受群体和组织的影响,需要我们今后注意这些影响产生的决策陷阱。

从群体角度
对于群体,我们要充分认识权变和情境的力量。在不同群体中,或者对于群体中的不同个人、不同环境,我们采用的沟通方式、谈判方式和管理方式都要进行相应的调整
群体盲从效应在某些时候非常有助于群体决策的形成,如果善于利用这一效应,将使我们工作中能分清重点,不会在群体中均分力量
当个人需要影响群体意识时,与群体谈判策略非常重要,如果是创新性的观点,可以从小到大的策略进行影响;而如果是破坏式的(即希望否定群体原有的想法),则可以采用从大到小的策略进行影响

从组织的角度
组织中的体系与规范建设非常重要,否则将会像合纵联盟一样,当出现内部或外部危机时,没有自我调节和应对的方式,很快就会溃散。
任何一个健康的组织,都不应该依赖某一个关键人物作为唯一关键角色。依靠某个个人魅力和能力,而不是依靠流程与制度运转的组织,往往这个人物会成为组织成长和发展的瓶颈。如果这个个人出现问题,对组织中会是一个很大的冲击,这并不是一种健康的模式。因此,组织设计时,要尽可能避免过度的使用个人力量。
组织中的沟通方式非常重要。无论是轮式沟通、环式沟通还是点对点沟通,都有其优缺点,但是组织中必须充分进行成员间的沟通,这些沟通看似耗费大量时间和精力,但是对于整个组织能统一想法、解除信任危机、步调一致前进,都是非常有必要的。

上面是我们从合纵、连横这一历史截面作为参照,借用本学期从陈老师这里学习的组织行为学知识,得到的一些脑力激荡的结果,不一定正确和完整,但是确实感觉收益匪浅。课程的结束也是另一种学习的开始,我们希望能在今后的工作和生活中不断学习实践,作全面的“三好学生”!

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...between two nations in the bed of history. And then a little treat on current similarities and what is happening in the current days. Back in the history Name of China in Persian language written as چین read exactly as Qin in pinyin writing of Chinese mandarin language implies the starting point of mutual acquaintance going back till the time of Qin dynasty in China which coincides with the rule Arsacid dynasty (Parthian Empire) in Iran. However the oldest document currently available about these relationships points out to the time of Chinese Han Dynasty and Iranian Parthian Empire(247 BC - 224 AD). These relations continued further up to next Iranian dynasty of Sassanids and after invasion of Arabs to Iran and continued in different forms of commercial, religious, cultural & scientific transactions. Mutual relations before Islam An outstanding document from Chinese part is Zhang Qian words in Shiji 史记 one of the most reliable records on Chinese history written by grand Chinese historian Sima Qian 司马迁. The Chinese explorer Zhang Qian, who visited the neighbouring countries of Bactria and Sogdiana in 126 BCE, made the first known Chinese report on Parthia. In his accounts Parthia is named Ānxī 安息 , a transliteration of "Arsacid", the name of the Parthian dynasty. Zhang Qian clearly identifies Parthia as an advanced urban civilization, which he equates to those of Dayuan (in Ferghana currently located in Uzbekistan) and Daxia (in Bactria currently located in Afghanistan). ...

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Jivaro Indian Tribe Research Paper

...Head Shrinking and Power Seeking: The Jivaro Indian Tribe The shrunken heads or better known as the Tsantsa of Jivaros’, an artifact left to us from many tribes ago. These heads not only symbolize barbaric living, but horrific rituals that have taken place in history. This tribe unfortunately was not the only ones in history to take off another’s head to show power over one another. Although, head shrinking was indeed only unique to the Jivaro Indians and was not repeated by any other tribe in history. The process that had to be performed, was either taking off another’s head during a bloody battle or taking off an enemy’s head for a religious significance. Most of the heads that were left in time are donated to museums or kept because some...

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