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My research topic is on Female Circumcision, otherwise known as Female Genital Mutilation (FMG). Female Genital Mutilation is a procedure that involves intentional alteration or cutting of female genital organs for non- medical reasons, from age infant to 10 years and older depending on the community.
Studies have shown that this practice does not have any health benefit to any female, but rather it causes damages. FGM practice is recognized as a violation of human rights of girls and women; it reflects deep rooted inequality between sexes and constitutes an extreme form of discrimination against women.
No matter the justification or reason that supporters of female genital mutilation my advance, the practice is not only barbaric and primitive, but scientifically and socially uncalled for and should be eradicated. This practice has numerous hazardous health consequences of immediate and delayed complications, apart from their negative psychological and social impact, also sometimes proved fatal in many instances (Rushwan, 1983 and 1994, El Dareer, 1983, Shandal and AbulFutuh, 1967). This violates a person right to health, security and physical integrity.
FGM practice is associated with traditional beliefs of communities in Africa, New Zealand, and the United States of America and Canada. This practice is carried out without anesthetics and antiseptic treatments, using basic tools such as knives, scissors, scalpels, pieces of glass and razor blades.
Many women in these communities still believe that FGM is necessary to ensure acceptance by their communities and are unaware that the practice is not done by the entire world.
This practice has attracted the attention of the WHO (World Health Organization) and UN (United Nation) who have partnered to bring a stop to this menace through research work within communities and changes in public policy.
This research topic strikes my interest because even with the awareness, steps and procedures, research still shows that the practice is still on the rise and ongoing, an estimated number of three million girls are estimated to be circumcised in Africa alone.
In summary, FGM is a serious traditional practice that adversely affects the health and lives of girls and women, particularly in the African Continent. Within this context it would seem logical to consider and deal with FGM/FC as a synonym of an endemic, epidemic and fatal disease specific to girls and women, whenever and wherever it is prevalent and/or practiced (Abdel Magied, 1998). Nonetheless, internationally the practice is recognized as violence against women and violation of the child's and women's human rights.
References:
Rahman, Anika and Toubia Nahid (2000) (Female Genital Mutilation): A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide: Zed Books, London and New York.
Questions:
1. Why should FGM (Female Genital Mutilation) practice be eradicated? 2. What are the consequences of FGM (Female Genital Mutilation)

Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide falseAhmed Abdel Magied. Ahfad Journal17.2 (Dec 2000): 59-61.
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"Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide" by Anika Rahman and Toubia Nahid is reviewed.
"Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide" by Anika Rahman and Toubia Nahid is reviewed.
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Rahman, Anika and Toubia Nahid (2000) Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide: Zed Books, London and New York.
This book is subdivided into two main parts. The information given in Part I came under the broad title of "Human Rights Approach" and the latter is subdivided into five sections.
Section one, is a brief classical account on the background, history and complications arising from female genital mutilation (FGM) or female circumcision (FC) practice. This section also made a short review of the attempts of some international agencies ahd some NGOs to bring attention to stop the practice
Under the title "International Human Rights Law", section two tries to pose FGM/FC as a Human Rights issue. This section also reviews the international conventions and declarations that are considered to be violated by practicing FGM/FC.
Section three, under the title of "Duties of Governments Under Human Rights Law", holds governments accountable for FGM/FC since the practice is performed by private individuals in countries where FGM/FC is customary. This section also advocates that governments are obliged to abide to the international conventions and declarations that protect the rights of women and children and ensure health care, social order, integrity and the general well fare of the individual.
Section four which is on "Recommendations for Governments", is concerned with suggestions about the actions that governments can undertake to stop FGM/FC practice. The suggested government action is envisaged to cover three areas that include legal measures,' regulatory measures and broad policies. The legal measures are to include reforms necessary to promote women's rights as well as laws specific to the practice. Regulatory measures are also thought to address specific groups, such as health professionals who-are in a position to discourage or promote FGM/FC practice. Policies concerned with FGM/FC may include educational and outreach programs that aim at women's empowerment within the limited scope of this book regarding the specific area concerned with women and development. However, governmental policies addressing FGM/FC in countries receiving immigrant women and girls, with FGM/FC in their culture, should be taken with caution so as not to alienate the communities that they wish to assist. That is to say, their approach in policies addressing FGM/FC should be quite different from those of governments in African and other countries where FGM/FC, is deeply entrenched in their culture. In connection with the "Legal Measures" to be adopted, those governments should ratify international and regional human rights instruments, ensure constitutional protection of the rights of women and girls, carefully consider application of criminal sanctions for FGM/ FC and provide other legal protections against FGM/ FC. In the latter case, under legalized civil claim, FGM/ FC can be considered as an injury that gives right to a civil lawsuit for damages that seek monetary compensation from practitioners. Within the framework of "Regulatory Measures", medical ethics standards should make it clear that the practice of FGM/ FC on children and non- consenting women violates professional standards. In this case, medical practitioners who engage in the practice should loose their license to work in the medical field. NGOs with the full cooperation and support of governments should freely be permitted to implement activities aimed at stopping FGM/ FC practice. . As to "Policy Measures," governments should give full support to top educational programs about health and other hazards of FGM/ FC and full access to government owned media should be made available. To avoid practicing FGM/FC as a prerequisite for marriage, concerned governments should seek policies for empowerment of women through economic independence. Also, governments must ensure access of women to reproductive health rights and should see link between the practice of FGM/FC and the urging need for reproductive health services.
Section 5 is on the "Legal Policy Strategies for NGOs with a brief Review of Existing Approaches". This section emphasizes the important role of women, their families and the different sectors of their communities in combating FGM/FC practice. The latter can only be achieved through constructive dialogue that would affect the social behavior instrument in a direction that would ultimately convince the community to abandon the practice. "The NGO sector has tried a wide range of strategies to stop FGM/FC. Some seem to have failed and others yielded some degrees of success, whereas others still have not been adequately evaluated. Each organization or NGO movement must choose strategies that are relevant to its own political, economical and social realities. Cooperation among different types of NGOs to address FC/FGM is likely to increase effectiveness of the overall movement." This section emphasizes the importance of leadership of women regarding this and other issues. However, as a principal, it has been vividly projected that women cannot stand alone in their demand for justice and therefore must involve the widest possible sectors of their society. This section also made a brief review, which was not meant to be comprehensive, of many programs attempted in many countries to abolish FGM/FC practice. Those included. approaches to risk factors. Educational programs for women empowerment, intensive social marketing to community leaders, educating circumcisers and providing them with alternative income etc. Briefing was also made on strategies at community, national, regional and international levels.
Part II of the book consists of a summary of legal, regulatory and policy initiatives made by some countries around the world. The summary includes forty country profiles. Of those, 21 are African countries where FGM/FC is customarily practiced. This is in addition to 13 industrial countries to which women and girls, with FGM/FC in their culture, have immigrated. The information given here is based on a research survey through a questionnaire filled by 30 respondents who represent some eminent persons with various contributions of relevance to the subject matter.of the book.
This book is a valuable reference of relevant compiled information, which is most useful to all actors concerned with the vital issue of FGM/FC. Of particular 4nterest is the core of the book which embodied a useful analytical survey of legal and other aspects connected with the roles that concerned governments, NGOs and other actors are expected to play.
Reviewed by:
Professor Ahmed Abdel Magied, School of Family Sciences, Ahfad University for Women, Omdurman, Sudan
Word count: 1031
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Copyright Ahfad University, College for Women Dec 2000
Female genital mutilation: the potential for increased risk of HIV infection.
Author:
Kun KE
Source:
INTERNATIONAL FEDERATION OF GYNECOLOGY AND OBSTETRICS. 1997 Nov; 59(2):153-5.
Abstract:
Both the World Health Organization and the International Federation of Gynecologists and Obstetricians have hypothesized that female genital mutilation (FGM) may be a risk factor for HIV transmission. Postulated mechanisms for such transmission include: 1) the risk of inflammation and bleeding at coitus in genitally mutilated women and subsequent disruption to the genital epithelium and exposure to blood, 2) abrasions in men attempting vaginal penetration, 3) the greater risk of hemorrhage in childbirth due to obstructed labor and tearing of vaginal and perineal scar tissue and the consequent increased need for blood transfusion, 4) use of unsterilized instruments in the performance of FGM, and 5) the practice of the more risky anal intercourse as a substitute for painful vaginal intercourse. If documented, an association between FGM and increased HIV risk could be a valuable weapon in the campaign to eradicate FGM. Confirmation of such an association might persuade village elders, opinion leaders, and parents to stop this practice.
Language:
English
Year:
1997
Keywords:
Female Genital Cutting |
HIV Infections |
AIDS |
Risk Factors |
Reproductive Health |
Women |
Harmful Traditional Practices |
Traditional Health Practices |
Culture |
Sociocultural Factors |
Viral Diseases |
Diseases |
Health |
Demographic Factors |
Population
Document Number:
131251
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Studies of FGM Prevalence
Prior to this present study that is being reported on, there had been very few studies conducted in the past, or studies had been on a small number of women.
Some of the most accurate early data on FGM comes from Fran Hosken3 who in 1982 compiled statistics from her many years of studying FGM in Africa. Between 1995 and 2002 the Demographics and Health Surveys published data compiled by questionnaire from 16 countries, but Somaliland and Somalia were not included. Countries that have had repeated data collected have shown small declines in prevalence and a trend to less severe forms of mutilation4. There are a number of published studies from African countries, (not including Somaliland), in particular Nigeria, which have estimated FGM prevalence, but most have involved small numbers and have only been carried out over short periods
In 1998 a national survey by the Ministry of Health in Somalia stated a 96% prevalence rate. In 1999 Care International studied Somaliland and stated that it was universal, with 91% undergoing the most severe form, Type 3. A Swedish study published in 1991 questioned 290 Somali women living in Sweden and found that 100% had FGM, with 88% being Type 3 despite a relatively high socio-economic level, and the majority was willing to perform FGM on their daughters due to religious reasons. A recent study by the WHO and UNICEF looking for the first time, into HIV prevalence also asked women about their FGM status. The study included 769 women and found that 98% had undergone Type 3 circumcision.
World Wide Opinions about FGM
The United Nations and other humanitarian organizations consider FGM a violation of human rights. As early as 1979 the WHO recommended, at an international conference, that the practice should be eradicated and in 1993 the World Health Assembly called for abolition of the practice. Consequently, most countries have strict laws forbidding the practice.

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...CHANGING CLOTHES. CHANGING CONVENTIONAL WISDOM. CHANGING THE WORLD. Fast Retailing has the conviction and vision to face the challenge of creating a better world. PARIS Valerie Dassier, Head of E-Commerce and Customer Care, Comptoire des Cottonniers and Princess Tam Tam To become a leader, it’s not enough to do it a little bit better. Great leaders see a different reality. LONDON Kate Pierre, Store Manager, Uniqlo UK We are going to be the number one casual clothes company in the world. And we will look to our managers in the company to take on bigger roles in their local countries and abroad. MOSCOW Aleksandr Kurchatov, Store Manager, Uniqlo Your attitude and your smile go a long way. My philosophy is to give people the chance to smile and they will open up. NEW YORK Jennifer Parker, VP Store Management, Theory, NY More than any other retailer, FR empowers people to be the CEOs of their own four walls. They put the onus on the store manager to change themselves and make it the most important role. SAN FRANCISCO Daisuke Tsukakoshi, Director West Coast, Uniqlo USA In the U.S., the home of casual clothing, competition is fierce. We’ll need people who are willing to play major roles in opening up this effort. SHANGHAI Joanne Lam, Merchandising Director, Uniqlo, Hong Kong and Mainland China I always admired Coco Channel as a kid. She turned around the whole fashion industry of her time. I want to work in a big company that is prepared to make that...

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