...potential explanations for the Security Market Line has been flatter than the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) would predict. Student Name: Jiaxin Shen Student Number: 100103708 Word count: 1227 Discuss potential explanations for the Security Market Line has been flatter than the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) would predict. The Capital Asset Pricing Model is based on asset portfolio theory and capital market theory. It emphasizes on the study of the relation between the expected return of asset and risky asset in the securities market. As one of prediction models based on the balance of risky asset expected return, CAPM elaborates on the formation of market equilibrium in the case of investors through Markowitz’ theory to investment management. (Pennacchi, 2008) It shows that a sample liner relation about expected return of asset and expected risks. In the model, beta is a significant parameter, since it measures the expected risks of assets. The Capital Asset Pricing Model has been widely adopted by investors, however, it has some limitation. The relation between beta and average return is too flat is confirmed in time-series tests. It is described by the the Security Market Line. Black, Jensen and Scholes (1972) concentrated their attention on the security market line. If the portfolio is efficient, which means there is a positive relation between beta and expected return. The study of Fama and MacBeth (1973) mainly focus on predicting the future returns of the...
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...1990 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics for this contribution to the field of financial economics. Fischer Black developed another version of CAPM, called Black CAPM or zero-beta CAPM that does not assume the existence of a riskless asset. This version was more robust against empirical testing and was influential in the widespread adoption of the CAPM (Fama & French, 1982). CAPM has become very attractive as a tool that measures risk to possible in relation to expected return, although it is still widely used for estimating the cost of capital for firms and evaluating the performance of managed portfolios. While CAPM is accepted academically, there is empirical evidence suggesting that the model is not as profound as it may have first appeared to be. CAPM’s empirical fallings arise theoretically from many over simplified assumptions made by the model. This has made it difficult to implement valid test for this model (Kristina Zucchi, 2015). For example according to the CAPM model the risk from an asset such as stock should be measured relative to a comprehensive, but this principle can include such as human capital not just financially traded assets. It is also unclear as to whether if we should narrow the scope of this to financially traded assets or expand this to include other financial instrument such as bonds, and...
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...Capital Asset Pricing Model: The Indian Context R Vaidyanathan T he Capital Asset Pricing model is based on two parameter portfolio analysis model developed by Markowitz (1952). This model was simultaneously and independently developed by John Lintner (1965), Jan Mossin (1966) and William Sharpe (1964). In equation form the model can be expressed as follows: E (Ri) = Rf + (i [E(rm) – Rf] = Rf +(im / (m (E(Rm) – Rf / (m) Where E(Ri) is expected return on asset i, Rf is the risk-free rate of return, E(Rm) is expected return on market proxy and (i; is a measure of risk specific to asset i. This relationship between expected return on asset i and expected return on market portfolio is also called the security market line. If CAPM is valid, all securities will lie in a straight line called the security market line in the E(R), (i frontier. The security market line implies that return is a linearly increasing function of risk. Moreover, only the market risk affects the return and the investor receive no extra return for bearing diversifiable (residual) risk. The set of assumptions employed in the development of the CAPM can be summarized as follows [Sears and Trennepohl (1993)]: 1. Investors are risk-averse and they have a preference for expected return and a dislike for risk. 2. Investors make investment decisions based on expected return and the variances of security returns, i.e. two-parameter utility function...
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...invest. Due to this, different statistical models have emerged to attempt to scientifically measure the potential returns on an investment. The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) and the Arbitrage Pricing Theory (APT) are two of such models. The purpose of this essay is to critically compare the Arbitrage Pricing Theory with the Capital Asset Pricing Model as used by fund managers in the United Kingdom. Captial Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) When Sharpe (1964) and Lintner (1965) proposed the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), it was seen as a leading tool in measuring if an investment will yield in positive or negative returns. It attempts to explain the relationship between investment risk and expected reward of risky securities (Ushad, 2011; Reilly and Brown, 2011; Heshmat, 2012). The CAPM helps to determine the required rate of return for any risky asset (Reilly and Brown, 2011). “The CAPM states that the expected return on a security or a portfolio equals the rate on a risk-free security plus a risk premium” (Heshmat, 2012: 504). It indicates that the expected return on an asset has a positive linear relationship with the non-diversifiable risk of the security (beta) (Heshmat, 2012). Ushad (2011) explains that the CAPM is based on the premise that higher returns should be associated with higher beta risks. It is usually calculated as follows: E(Ri)= Rf + βi (E(Rm) - Rf). (Ushad, 2011). Where, E(Ri) = return required on financial asset i Rf = risk-free rate of return βi...
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...zju.edu.cn/jzus E-mail: jzus@zju.edu.cn The Q theory of investment, the capital asset pricing model, and asset valuation: a synthesis MCDONALD John F. (College of Business Administration, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA) E-mail: mcdonald@uic.edu Received Feb. 23, 2004; revision accepted Mar. 6, 2004 Abstract: The paper combines Tobin’s Q theory of real investment with the capital asset pricing model to produce a new and relatively simple procedure for the valuation of real assets using the income approach. Applications of the new method are provided. Key words: Investment theory, Asset pricing, Appraisal Document code: A CLC number: F832.48 INTRODUCTION This paper combines the economic theory of real investment and the standard financial model of asset pricing to produce a method for the valuation of real assets; and intentionally uses relatively simple versions of these two theories to link economics, finance, and appraisal. Numerical examples using data on real estate assets illustrate the valuation method. The Q theory of investment, introduced by James Tobin (1969), is popularly accepted theory of real investment hypothesized to be a positive function of Q, defined as the ratio of the market value to the replacement cost of capital. Standard presentation of the theory, such as that of Romer (1996), shows that Q is the value to the firm of an additional unit of capital, which is the discounted value of its future marginal revenue products. Extensions...
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...Capital Asset Pricing Model and Arbitrage Pricing Theory in the Italian Stock Market: an Empirical Study ARDUINO CAGNETTI∗ ABSTRACT The Italian stock market (ISM) has interesting characteristics. Over 40% of the shares, in a sample of 30 shares, together with the Mibtel market index, are normally distributed. This suggests that the returns distribution of the ISM as a whole may be normal, in contrast to the findings of Mandelbrot (1963) and Fama (1965). Empirical tests in this study suggest that the relationships between β and return in the ISM over the period January 1990 – June 2001 is weak, and the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) has poor overall explanatory power. The Arbitrage Pricing Theory (APT), which allows multiple sources of systematic risks to be taken into account, performs better than the CAPM, in all the tests considered. Shares and portfolios in the ISM seem to be significantly influenced by a number of systematic forces and their behaviour can be explained only through the combined explanatory power of several factors or macroeconomic variables. Factor analysis replaces the arbitrary and controversial search for factors of the APT by “trial and error” with a real systematic and scientific approach. The behaviour of share prices, and the relationship between risk and return in financial markets, have long been of interest to researchers. In 1905, a young scientist named Albert Einstein, seeking to demonstrate the existence of atoms, developed an elegant...
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... Table of Contents Table of Contents 1 1.0 Multifactor model 2 2.0 Arbitrage pricing theory (APT) 2 3.0 Multifactor Models (APT) and Testing 4 Reference 7 Multifactor model Estimation of returns on security and APT on International level demonstrating Factors Those are statistically significant 1.0 Multifactor model Pardalos (1997) defines multifactor model as a financial model which uses multiple factors during computation to explain a given market phenomena or at a given equilibrium market prices. The model is also useful in explaining both the individual and portfolio market securities. This is capable through comparison of two or more factors which are being analyzed to determine the relationship between the securities performance and the variables. Formula can be used to express the relationship Return on equity (Ri), Market return (Rm), factor search (F 1, 2…) 2.0 Arbitrage pricing theory (APT) The relationship between literature theories and the stock market behavior is the Asset Pricing model (Levy and Thierry 2005). Consigli and Wallace (2000) in their study, indicates that both are used in whenever securities are being given price and the individual assets risk are also being priced and can also be used in between portfolio to give a more insights of business activities and behavior hence...
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... Mission, Goal Philosophy. Policies of an Organization. 2. Strategy, Strategy as planned action, Its importance, Process and advantages of planning Strategic v/s Operational Planning. 3. Decision making and problem solving. Categories of problems, Problem solving skill, Group decision making. Phases indecision making, 4. Communication Commitment and performance, Role of the leader, Manager v/s Leaders Leadership styles 5. Conventional Strategic Management v[s Unconventional Strategic Management. The Differences, Changed Circumstance. 6. Growth Acce orators: Business Web, Market Power, learning based. 7. Management Control, Elements, Components of Management Information Sysstems 8. Mokena’s 7 8 Models : Strategy, style, structure, systems, staff, skill and Shared values 9. Group Project Reference Text 1. Strategic Management — Thompson & Striekland McGraw Hill 2. Competitive advantage – Michael...
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...PORTFOLIO PERFORMANCE EVALUATION- LITERATURE REVIEW Deepa Chandrashekar Table of Contents 1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................... 2 2. Portfolio Returns Calculation................................................................................................................ 4 2.1. 2.2. Value weighted rate of return........................................................................................................ 6 2.3. 3. Time weighted rate of return......................................................................................................... 5 Internal rate of return .................................................................................................................... 6 Literature Review.................................................................................................................................. 7 3.1. Sharpe ratio ................................................................................................................................... 9 3.2. Sortino ratio ................................................................................................................................10 3.3. Treynor ratio ...............................................................................................................................12 3.4. Jensen ratio...
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...Case Study: Nike, Inc.: Cost of Capital BUSFIN 4214 Written By: Joe Nau Nau.33@osu.edu Section: 32347 Cost of Capital NorthPoint Group’s strategy consists of identifying and investing in undervalued public companies. Joanna Cohen, an assistant to a portfolio manager at NorthPoint, is asked to help evaluate whether Nike Inc. is undervalued. Analysis by the portfolio manager shows that when Nike’s cash flows are discounted at 12% their shares are overpriced, however, when discounted at rates below 11.17% the firm is undervalued. Cohen is tasked to further analyze Nike’s cost of capital to accurately estimate what rate their cash flows should be discounted back at. Joanna Cohen’s WACC Calculations Cohen decides to use a single cost of capital rather than multiple costs of capital. This is accurate as Nike operates primarily in the same business segments and each segment assumes similar risks. To find Nike’s Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC), she must first find the capital structure of the firm. Cohen incorrectly uses the book value of equity, rather than the market value. Additionally, she uses the book value of debt, however this is acceptable because the market values are not provided in the case. With Nike’s capital structure in hand, Cohen begins calculate the cost of capital for debt and equity. To calculate the cost of debt, Cohen uses historical interest expenses as a proxy, however this is not a forward looking estimation and using the materials provided...
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...THE EFFECT OF ENERGY PRICES ON TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE SECTOR’S EQUITY RETURNS: THE IRANIAN CASE by ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of oil and gas prices on transportation and storage sector’s equity returns in Iran. To this end, we analyze Iranian transportation and storage sector index for the period from the first week of January 2005 until the third week of March 2010. Based on the multifactor model and using time-series regression, our findings indicate that oil price is not an important determinant of returns in transportation and storage sector. Similarly, the findings suggest that gas price movements do not seem to play a role for transportation and storage sector. However, consistent with the capital asset pricing model (CAPM), the market portfolio is a significant pricing factor in the sector’s stock returns. In addition, the estimated regression indicates that the exchange rate is not priced for this sector’s stock returns. The results of this study help domestic and potential foreign investors to understand the effect of energy price changes on transportation and storage sector stock returns in order to manage their portfolio effectively. KEYWORDS Energy prices, Transportation and storage sector, Equity returns, Iran INTRODUCTION Recent years have witnessed massive price movements of the energy markets. The price of energy has a large impact on economy of the world (Huang et al., 1996; Nandha & Brooks, 2009; Chen et al., 1986; Nandha...
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...MSC Finance Std: xxxxxxxxx Introduction Asset pricing models are very useful tools in calculating the risk and their respected return for the investors and they are being widely used by financial analyst. From different theories we can determine the value of assets into three steps i.e., Expected Cash Flow, number of periods and the expected rate of returns. Investors have several questions before investing his money in any stock or in any other commodity that is what should be the accuracy of prices of selling or buying the stocks, what could be the risk, what are the factors should be considered that ignores uncertainty and the expected returns of the stock. The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) and Arbitrage Pricing Theory (APT) both are well known pricing model determines the risk factor for analyzing the appropriate returns for the investors in their own unique ways. CAPM model uses the whole market environment as one factor but on the other hand APT uses five different economics factor which is more detailed in describing risk which accelerates for these factors. The adoption of CAPM is in practice but other hand its various criticisms are documented on it as well and academics are working on the new approaches of it such as APT and others is discussed in later paragraphs. In this assignment I will discuss the assumptions of CAPM and APT model and their pros and cons and the limitations of CAPM over APT models. CAPM and its Shortcomings Hary Markowitz...
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...CAPITAL ASSET PRICES WITH AND WITHOUT NEGATIVE HOLDINGS Nobel Lecture, December 7, 1990 by W ILLIAM F. S H A R P E Stanford University Graduate School of Business, Stanford, California, USA INTRODUCTION* Following tradition, I deal here with the Capital Asset Pricing Model, a subject with which I have been associated for over 25 years, and which the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has cited in honoring me with the award of the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel. I first present the Capital Asset Pricing Model (hence, CAPM), incorpo1 rating not only my own contributions but also the outstanding work of Lintner (1965, 1969) and the contributions of Mossin (1966) and others. My goal is to do so succinctly yet in a manner designed to emphasize the economic content of the theory. Following this, I modify the model to reflect an extreme case of an institutional arrangement that can preclude investors from choosing fully optimal portfolios. In particular, I assume that investors are unable to take negative positions in assets. For this version of the model I draw heavily from papers by Glenn (1976), Levy (1978), Merton (1987) and Markowitz (1987, 1990). Finally, I discuss the stock index futures contract - a major financial innovation of worldwide importance that postdates the development of the CAPM. Such contracts can increase the efficiency of capital markets in many ways. In particular, they can bring actual markets closer to the idealized world assumed by the...
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...Research Papers Vol. 8. No.1. January 2012. Pp. 20 - 32 Pricing of Liquidity Risk in Emerging Markets: Evidence from Greater China Kuntonrat Davivongs1 and Pantisa Pavabutr2 This paper used the liquidity adjusted capital asset pricing model of Acharya and Pedersen (2005) to examine the liquidity risk of stocks in two retail-based equity markets, China and Taiwan during the period of 1996-2008. We found that the proportion of liquidity risk overwhelms market risk, unlike the findings in US markets. As a pricing factor, the evidence indicated that systematic liquidity risk was more important than market risk in Taiwan. In China, crosssectional differences in individual firm liquidity explained differences in returns. JEL codes: G12, G15 Key Words: Asset Pricing, Liquidity Risk, Emerging Markets 1. Introduction The diversity of liquidity features and their importance in asset pricing have been an active area of research. The main conclusions drawn from existing works are that there exists commonality in liquidity (Chordia et al., 2000, Huberman and Halka, 2001, Hasbrouck and Seppi, 2001) and that investors demand premium from illiquidity (Amihud and Mendelson, 1986, Brennan and Subrahmanyam, 1996, Datar et al., 1998, Amihud, 2002). What is less understood is the relative importance of market risk to liquidity risk. In an attempt to shed light on this issue, Acharya and Pedersen (2005) used an equilibrium model as a framework to measure possible channels of liquidity risk...
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...making dozens of trades a day, there is a problem. These people are risk lovers. When investing in stocks, bonds or any other investment instrument, there is a lot more risk than you'd think. In this section, we'll take a look at the different kind of risks that often threaten investors' returns, ways of measuring and calculating risk, and methods for managing risk. Expected Return, Variance and Standard Deviation of a Portfolio Expected return is calculated as the weighted average of the likely profits of the assets in the portfolio, weighted by the likely profits of each asset class. Expected return is calculated by using the following formula: | Written another way, the same formula is as follows: E(R) = w1R1 + w2Rq + ...+ wnRn Example: Expected Return For a simple portfolio of two mutual funds, one investing in stocks and the other in bonds, if we expect the stock fund to return 10% and the bond fund to return 6% and our allocation is 50% to each asset class, we have the following:...
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