...Capital Asset Pricing Model Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) is used to calculate the projected return on the equity of a single company. CAPM is based on risk free rate, the expected return rate on the market and beta coefficient of a single portfolio and security. Re = Rf + β [E(Rm) - (Rf)] According to the formula, Re represents the Return on Equity, Rf is for the risk-free rate, E(Rm) denoted to expected rate of return on the market, and β is the beta coefficient and E(Rm) - Rf is the difference among the expected market rate of return and the risk-free rate, is known as the market premium (Phillips, 2007). The total risk of stock is divided in two parts: the systematic risk, which is risk linked with the market and is impossible to...
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...Capital Asset Pricing Model Introduction One factor model that extends the capital asset pricing model (CAPM), adding size and value factors in addition to market risk factor in CAPM. This model considers the fact that the cost and small-capitalization stocks outperform the market on a regular basis. Including these two additional factors that corrects the model for the outperformance trend, which is thought to make it a better tool for evaluating the effectiveness of a manager. FAMA and French tried to better assess the market returns, and based on research, it was found that the value of the shares outperform growth stocks; In addition, small cap stocks tend to outperform large cap stocks. As an instrument of evaluation, the effectiveness of the portfolio with a large number of small cap or value stocks will be lower than the CAPM results, the three factor model adjusts down to small cap and value outperformance. There is much debate about how, outperformance is due to the tendency of market efficiency or inefficiency of the market. On the efficiency side of the debate, outperformance, how to explain that the risk of exceeding cost and small-capitalization stocks face as a result of their high cost of capital and increased business risk. On the ineffectiveness of the parties, outperformance is explained by market participants mispricing the value of those companies, which provides the excess return over the long term as the value is adjusted. The model for asset pricing...
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...MSC Finance Std: xxxxxxxxx Introduction Asset pricing models are very useful tools in calculating the risk and their respected return for the investors and they are being widely used by financial analyst. From different theories we can determine the value of assets into three steps i.e., Expected Cash Flow, number of periods and the expected rate of returns. Investors have several questions before investing his money in any stock or in any other commodity that is what should be the accuracy of prices of selling or buying the stocks, what could be the risk, what are the factors should be considered that ignores uncertainty and the expected returns of the stock. The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) and Arbitrage Pricing Theory (APT) both are well known pricing model determines the risk factor for analyzing the appropriate returns for the investors in their own unique ways. CAPM model uses the whole market environment as one factor but on the other hand APT uses five different economics factor which is more detailed in describing risk which accelerates for these factors. The adoption of CAPM is in practice but other hand its various criticisms are documented on it as well and academics are working on the new approaches of it such as APT and others is discussed in later paragraphs. In this assignment I will discuss the assumptions of CAPM and APT model and their pros and cons and the limitations of CAPM over APT models. CAPM and its Shortcomings Hary Markowitz...
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...Capital Asset Pricing Model Case Study Beta Management Company (HBS Case 9-292-122) We are asked to read the Harvard Case and answer the following questions. The answers need to be clear so I can research your work myself to gain a better understanding. Therefore, please make sure I can follow your reasoning – ie: please provide an explanation behind each of your approaches to answer each question. I intend to use your feedback as the basis to gain a better understanding of this course, which I have had difficulty in the area of CAPM. Having your detailed solution with explanations in front of me, will allow me to better research this topic and provide me with the framework to understand this particular problem better. Therefore, the more information you can provide, the better. I am not sure what an average cost is for a tutor to handle a problem such as this, but I have attempted to provide a good incentive to attract a tutor that will understand that I am genuinely seeking to gain a much greater grasp on CAPM and as such, am looking for a tutor to provide an in-depth and accurate response. Thanking you in advance. QUESTIONS: 1. Compute the standard deviation of the stock returns of California REIT and Brown Group during the past 2 years. 2. Suppose that Beta’s position had been 99% of equity funds invested in the index fund, and 1% in the individual stock. Calculated the standard deviation of this portfolio using each stock. How does each stock affect...
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...invest. Due to this, different statistical models have emerged to attempt to scientifically measure the potential returns on an investment. The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) and the Arbitrage Pricing Theory (APT) are two of such models. The purpose of this essay is to critically compare the Arbitrage Pricing Theory with the Capital Asset Pricing Model as used by fund managers in the United Kingdom. Captial Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) When Sharpe (1964) and Lintner (1965) proposed the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM), it was seen as a leading tool in measuring if an investment will yield in positive or negative returns. It attempts to explain the relationship between investment risk and expected reward of risky securities (Ushad, 2011; Reilly and Brown, 2011; Heshmat, 2012). The CAPM helps to determine the required rate of return for any risky asset (Reilly and Brown, 2011). “The CAPM states that the expected return on a security or a portfolio equals the rate on a risk-free security plus a risk premium” (Heshmat, 2012: 504). It indicates that the expected return on an asset has a positive linear relationship with the non-diversifiable risk of the security (beta) (Heshmat, 2012). Ushad (2011) explains that the CAPM is based on the premise that higher returns should be associated with higher beta risks. It is usually calculated as follows: E(Ri)= Rf + βi (E(Rm) - Rf). (Ushad, 2011). Where, E(Ri) = return required on financial asset i Rf = risk-free rate of return βi...
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...William Sharpe was rewarded with a Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1990, along with John Lintner and Jack Trayner, decades after they originated the Capital Asset Pricing Model. He shared this award with Merton Miller and economist Harry Markowitz, who’s earlier work, introduced the theory of modern portfolio and diversification. Along with Markowitz (1952), he began the theory of the model in 1956 when he was trying to find a dissertation topic. He built on Markowitz’s suggestions and set out his developed theory in his book “Portfolio Theory and Capital Markets.” (1970). This essay will try to outline the Capital Asset Pricing Model, explain the theory behind the model and outlay its uses. This will be done by using legal texts, journals and other resources. It is never possible to get rid of all the risk when investing and the actual return on an investment may differ from what the investor expects. For that reason investors always look for a rate of return that will repay them for their risk taking. The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) is a model that relates risk and return, helping investors calculate the risk of the investment and the return on the investment that should be expected. Haim Levy and Thierry Post (2005, p883) define the model as an “equilibrium asset-pricing model that predicts a linear relationship between expected return and beta.” It would be assumed that if an investor has decided to invest in a number of companies, the risk of the portfolio...
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...The Capital Assets Pricing Model Name: Course: Professor/ Tutor’s Name: University: City/State: Date: The Capital Assets Pricing Model Introduction The Capital Assets Pricing Model (CAPM) , is a method of pricing assets of capital nature. This model applies Beta (non-diversifiable risk) to link risks and returns of investments. According to Stahl (2016), Beta is a standard for measuring the systematic risk or the non-diversifiable risk. The uncertainty in the economy of a particular country causes the systematic risk. Systematic risk is that risk sharing or risk diversification cannot reduce. Economic downturns, war, natural calamities and a change of government policy are some of the activities that cause systematic risk. Both CAPM and Beta are measures of risk (Anon 2014). The capital assets pricing model defines the required rate of return of security. CAPM can be a mathematical equation, or a graphical representation is known as the security market line (SML) (Stahl 2015). An analysis of CAPM indicates that there are several critiques of this model. Nevertheless, there are multivariate models used to overcome these critiques. A).Formulas to Calculate CAPM and Beta 1). Capital Assets Pricing Model CAPM= [pic]= [pic]+ [pic] (RM-RF) Where; [pic] is the cutoff rate or even minimum required rate of return RM- RF is the risk premium and is above free rate RM is the market returns [pic] is the...
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...Discuss potential explanations for the Security Market Line has been flatter than the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) would predict. Student Name: Jiaxin Shen Student Number: 100103708 Word count: 1227 Discuss potential explanations for the Security Market Line has been flatter than the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) would predict. The Capital Asset Pricing Model is based on asset portfolio theory and capital market theory. It emphasizes on the study of the relation between the expected return of asset and risky asset in the securities market. As one of prediction models based on the balance of risky asset expected return, CAPM elaborates on the formation of market equilibrium in the case of investors through Markowitz’ theory to investment management. (Pennacchi, 2008) It shows that a sample liner relation about expected return of asset and expected risks. In the model, beta is a significant parameter, since it measures the expected risks of assets. The Capital Asset Pricing Model has been widely adopted by investors, however, it has some limitation. The relation between beta and average return is too flat is confirmed in time-series tests. It is described by the the Security Market Line. Black, Jensen and Scholes (1972) concentrated their attention on the security market line. If the portfolio is efficient, which means there is a positive relation between beta and expected return. The study of Fama and MacBeth (1973) mainly focus on predicting the future returns...
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...‘The Capital asset pricing model (CAPM) is a very useful model and it is used widely in the industry even though it is based on very strong assumptions. Discuss in the light of recent developments in the area.’ MN 3365 Strategic Finance Table of Contents Introduction Concept of CAPM Assumptions of CAPM . Other Suggested Models Disadvantages of CAPM Advantages of CAPM Problems in applying CAPM Conclusion Bibliography / References INTRODUCTION This essay will highlight the use of Capital asset pricing model ( CAPM ) to be considered as a pricing theory model for assets . CAPM model helps investors to analyse the risk and what expectation to keep from an investment (Banz , 1981) . There are two types of risk associated with CAPM known as systematic and unsystematic risk . The systematic risks are market risk which cannot be diversified such as fluctuations in interest rates and recession in the economy .Unsystematic risk are risks associated with an individual stock , it occurs when an investor increases the number of stocks on his portfolio. The unsystematic risk cannot be diversified as it is related an individual stock irrespective to the general market . (Amihud and Lev, 1981). The CAPM was introduced independently by Jack Trenor (1961 , 1962) , Jan Mossin (1996) and William F . Sharpe (1964) , it is basically an uplifment of the existing work of Harry Markowitz on modern portfolio therory as well as diversification which was given a name as...
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...INTRODUCTION Based on the law of one price, two items that are the same cannot sell at different prices, when this occurs arbitrage takes place and the arbitrageurs buy the cheaper goods and sell the higher priced goods till all the prices of the goods are equal. Arbitrage Pricing Theory describes a mechanism used by investors to identify an asset, such as a share of common stock, which is incorrectly priced. On the other hand the Capital Asset Pricing Model is based on a comparison or the systematic risk/market risk of individual investment with the risk of all shares in the market. It is also used to calculate cost of equity and incorporates risk. ARBITRAGE PRICING THEORY Arbitrage Pricing Theory was developed by the economist Stephen Ross in 1976. Arbitrage Pricing Theory assumes that each stock’s return to the investor is influenced by several independent factors. The APT model also states that the risk premium of a stock depends on two factors: The risk premium associated with each of the factors The stock’s sensitivity to the factors similar to the beta concept This theory does not tell the investor what those factors are for a particular stock or asset; in theory one stock might be more sensitive to one factor than another. Arbitrage leaves it up for the investor or fund manager to identify each factor for a particular stock. Hence the real challenge is for the fund manager to identify Each of the factors affecting a particular stock The expected returns...
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...Foundations of Finance: The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) Prof. Alex Shapiro Lecture Notes 9 The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) I. II. III. IV. V. VI. Readings and Suggested Practice Problems Introduction: from Assumptions to Implications The Market Portfolio Assumptions Underlying the CAPM Portfolio Choice in the CAPM World The Risk-Return Tradeoff for Individual Stocks VII. The CML and SML VIII. “Overpricing”/“Underpricing” and the SML IX. X. Uses of CAPM in Corporate Finance Additional Readings Equilibrium Process, Supply Equals Demand, Market Price of Risk, Cross-Section of Expected Returns, Risk Adjusted Expected Returns, Net Present Value and Cost of Equity Capital. Buzz Words: 1 Foundations of Finance: The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) I. Readings and Suggested Practice Problems BKM, Chapter 9, Sections 2-4. Suggested Problems, Chapter 9: 2, 4, 5, 13, 14, 15 Web: Visit www.morningstar.com, select a fund (e.g., Vanguard 500 Index VFINX), click on Risk Measures, and in the Modern Portfolio Theory Statistics section, view the beta. II. Introduction: from Assumptions to Implications A. Economic Equilibrium 1. Equilibrium analysis (unlike index models) Assume economic behavior of individuals. Then, draw conclusions about overall market prices, quantities, returns. 2. The CAPM is based on equilibrium analysis Problems: – – There are many “dubious” assumptions. The main implication of the CAPM concerns expected returns...
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...1990 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics for this contribution to the field of financial economics. Fischer Black developed another version of CAPM, called Black CAPM or zero-beta CAPM that does not assume the existence of a riskless asset. This version was more robust against empirical testing and was influential in the widespread adoption of the CAPM (Fama & French, 1982). CAPM has become very attractive as a tool that measures risk to possible in relation to expected return, although it is still widely used for estimating the cost of capital for firms and evaluating the performance of managed portfolios. While CAPM is accepted academically, there is empirical evidence suggesting that the model is not as profound as it may have first appeared to be. CAPM’s empirical fallings arise theoretically from many over simplified assumptions made by the model. This has made it difficult to implement valid test for this model (Kristina Zucchi, 2015). For example according to the CAPM model the risk from an asset such as stock should be measured relative to a comprehensive, but this principle can include such as human capital not just financially traded assets. It is also unclear as to whether if we should narrow the scope of this to financially traded assets or expand this to include other financial instrument such as bonds, and...
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...sdf Calculating Returns: CAPM vs. DCF Kalen Hickey American Military University The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) and Discounted Cash Flows Method are different techniques for determining returns on an investment. These concepts deal with the time value of money and the other investment factors. “If decisions are made that ignore the interaction of scale and risk, then cash flows are misvalued and suboptimal operations decisions are made” (Lederer & Mehta). Companies use CAPM and DCF to figure out the greatest potential for highest yield of an investment based on average market returns. The Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM) takes the two factors of time value of money and market risk into account for determining risk of investment and returns. “One is the risk of being in the market which is called systematic risk. The other-unsystematic risk-is specific to a company’s fortunes” (Burton, p.20). The two risks are married together, otherwise one would expect to see a positive return on every risk which is never the case. The expected rate of return for the CAPM takes into account risk-free interest rate, a stock beta that determines the relationship between the entire market and an individual investment, and an expected return from a typical market such as the Dow Jones. “The formula states that the expected return of a stock is equal to the risk-free rate of interest, plus the risk associated with all common stocks (market premium risk), adjusted for...
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...zju.edu.cn/jzus E-mail: jzus@zju.edu.cn The Q theory of investment, the capital asset pricing model, and asset valuation: a synthesis MCDONALD John F. (College of Business Administration, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA) E-mail: mcdonald@uic.edu Received Feb. 23, 2004; revision accepted Mar. 6, 2004 Abstract: The paper combines Tobin’s Q theory of real investment with the capital asset pricing model to produce a new and relatively simple procedure for the valuation of real assets using the income approach. Applications of the new method are provided. Key words: Investment theory, Asset pricing, Appraisal Document code: A CLC number: F832.48 INTRODUCTION This paper combines the economic theory of real investment and the standard financial model of asset pricing to produce a method for the valuation of real assets; and intentionally uses relatively simple versions of these two theories to link economics, finance, and appraisal. Numerical examples using data on real estate assets illustrate the valuation method. The Q theory of investment, introduced by James Tobin (1969), is popularly accepted theory of real investment hypothesized to be a positive function of Q, defined as the ratio of the market value to the replacement cost of capital. Standard presentation of the theory, such as that of Romer (1996), shows that Q is the value to the firm of an additional unit of capital, which is the discounted value of its future marginal revenue products. Extensions...
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...WACC A company has different sources of finance, namely common stock, retained earnings, preferred stock and debt. Weighted average cost of capital (WACC) is the average after tax cost of all the sources. It is calculated by multiplying the cost of each source of finance by the relevant weight and summing the products up. Formula For a company which has two sources of finance, namely equity and debt, WACC is calculated using the following formula: Cost of equity is calculated using different models for example dividend growth model and capital asset pricing model. Cost of debt is based on the yield to maturity of the relevant instruments. If no yield to maturity can be calculated we can base the estimate on the instrument's current yield, etc. The weights are based on the target market values of the relevant components. But if no market values are available we base the weights on book values. Cost of Preferred Stock Cost of preferred stock is the rate of return required by the holders of a company's preferred stock. It is calculated by dividing the annual dividend payment on the preferred stock by the preferred stock's current market price. In finance, the value of any asset equals the present value of its future net cash flows. In most cases, the cash flows stream of a preferred stock is a perpetuity because preferred stock has unlimited life and it pays a fixed amount of dividend each period. Value of a preferred stock is essentially the present value of the perpetuity...
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