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One of the critical problems confronting management and the board of Pioneer Petroleum
Corporation in July 1991 was the determination of a minimum acceptable rate of return on new capital investments. The company's basic capital budgeting approach was to accept all proposed investments with a positive net present value when discounted at the appropriate cost of capital. At issue was how the appropriate discount rate would be determined.
The company was weighing two alternative approaches for determining a minimum rate of return: (1) a single cutoff rate based on the company's overall weighted average cost of capital, and (2) a system of multiple cutoff rates that reflected the risk-profit characteristics of the several businesses or economic sectors in which the company's subsidiaries operated. The issue had assumed increased importance because of management's decision to extend the use of the cutoff rate to the evaluation of existing operations and investments. It was planned to evaluate divisional managers on the basis of their net profits after the deduction of a charge for capital employed by the division.
Pioneer Petroleum had been formed in 1924 through the merger of several for merely independent firms operating in the oil refining, pipeline transportation, and industrial chemicals fields. Over the next 60 years, the company integrated vertically into exploration and production of crude oil and marketing refined petroleum products, and horizontally into plastics, agricultural chemicals, and real estate development. It was restructured in 1985 as a hydrocarbons-based company, concentrating on oil, gas, coal and petrochemicals. Pioneer was one of the primary producers of Alaskan crude, and in 1990, Alaska provided 60% of Pioneer's domestic petroleum liquids production. Pioneer was also one of the lowest-cost refiners on the West Coast and had an extensive West Coast marketing network. Pioneer's Alaskan crude production provided all of the crude oil for its West Coast refining and marketing operations. This integration required collaboration and coordination among divisions to optimize overall performance and to decrease overall risk.

Note that the return on this portfolio is 12% regardless of which weather condition prevails.

Combining these two risky securities yields a portfolio with a certain return. Since we are sure of earning 12% on the portfolio, it is a very low-risk investment, comparable to risk-free security security such as a savings account. This example demonstrates risk reduction through diversification. By diversifying the investment over both firms, the investor creates a portfolio that is less risk than its two component stocks.
Total risk elimination is posible in this example because there is a perfect negative relation between the returns on stock A and B. In practice, such a perfect relation is very rare. Most firms securities tend to move together, and therefore complete elimination of risk is not posible. However, as long as there is some lack of parallelism in the returns of securities, diversification will always reduce risk. Since companies fortunes, and therefore their stocks returns. Do not move completely in parallel, investment in a few individual stocks.

Systematic and Unsystematic risk

Combining securities into portfolios reduces risk: When combined with other securities, a portion of a stock`s variability in return is canceled by complementary variations in the returns of other securities. Some firms represented in the portfolio may experience unanticipated adverse conditions (e.g., a wildcat strike). However, this may well be offset by the unexpected good fortune of other firms in the portfolio. Nervertheless, since to some extent stock Price (and returns) tend to move in concert, nota ll variability can be eliminated through diversification. Even investors holding diversified portfolios are exposed to the risk inherent in the overall performance of the stock market (for instance, the stock market crash of october 1987). Thus, it is convenient to divide a security´s total risk into that portion that is peculiar to a specific firm and can be diversified away (called unsystematic risk) and that portion that is market-related and nondiversifiable (called systematic risk):

TOTAL RISK = Unsystematic risk + Systematic risk (diversifiable risk,firm-specific) (Nondiversifiable risk, market-related)

Figure B illustrate the reduction of total risk as securities are added to a portfolio. Unsystematic risk is virtually eliminated in portfolios of 30 or 40 securities drawn from industries that are not closely related. Because the remaining systematic risk is market related, diversified portfolios tend to move in tándem with the market. The popular market índices (the dow jones industrial average, the S&P 500, and the New york stock Exchange index, for instance) are themselves diversified portfolios and tend to move in parallel. Thus, there is a close correspondence between swings in the returns of any diversified portfolio and in the returns on market índices such as the Dow. Examples of systematic and unsystematic risk factors are listed in the table B.

RISK, RETURN, AND MARKET EQUILIBRIUM

Investors are risk-averse and must be compensated for taking risk. Thus, risky securities are priced by the market to yield a higher expected return than low-risk securities. This extra reward, called the risk Premium, is necessary to induce risk.averse investors to hold risky securities. In a market dominated by risk-averse investors, there must be a positive relation between risk and expected return to achieve equilibrium. The expected return on a risk-free security (such as a treasury bill)is the risk-free rate. The expected return on risky securities can be thought of as this risk-free rate plus a Premium for risk:

Rs = Rf + Risk Premium
The market´s risk/return trade-off is illustrated in Figure C

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TABLE B
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Systematic and Unsystematic Risk Factors
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Examples of unsystematic Risk Factors
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A firm´s technical wizard is killed in an auto accident.
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A wildcat strike is declared.
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A lower-cost foreign competitor unexpectedly enters a firm´s product market.
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Oil is discovered on a firm´s property.
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Examples of Systematic Risk Factors
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Oil-producing countries institute a boycott.
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Congress votes for a massive tax cut.
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The Federal Reserve follows a restrictive monetary policy.
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There is a precipitous rise in long-term interest rates.

Uno de los problemas críticos que enfrenta la gestión y el consejo de Pioneer Petróleo
Corporación en julio de 1991 fue la determinación de una tasa mínima aceptable de rendimiento de las inversiones de capital nuevos. De la compañía enfoque básico del presupuesto de capital fue de aceptar todas las inversiones propuestas con un valor actual neto positivo cuando se descuenta a un costo apropiado de la capital. El problema era cómo la tasa de descuento apropiada sería determinado.

La compañía estaba evaluando dos enfoques alternativos para la determinación de una tarifa mínima de retorno: (1) una tasa de corte único, basado en el coste global promedio ponderado de la empresa de capital, y (2) un sistema de tipos de corte múltiple que refleja las características de riesgo-beneficio de las diversas empresas o sectores económicos en los que las filiales de la compañía opera. El tema había adquirido una mayor importancia debido a la decisión de la administración para ampliar el uso de la tasade corte para la evaluación de las operaciones existentes y las inversiones. Fue planeado para evaluar los gerentes de división sobre la base de sus utilidades netas después de la deducción de un cargo por el capital empleado por la división.

Pioneer petróleo se había formado en 1924 tras la fusión de varios por el solo hecho empresas independientes que operan en la refinación de petróleo, transporte por ductos, y los campos de productos químicos industriales. En los próximos 60 años, la empresa integrada verticalmente en exploración y producción de petróleo crudo y comercialización de productos refinados del petróleo, y horizontalmente en plásticos, productos químicos agrícolas, y el desarrollo inmobiliario. Se reestructuró en 1985 como una empresa de hidrocarburos basado en la concentración del petróleo, gas, carbón y productos petroquímicos. Pioneer fue una de los principales productores de crudo de Alaska, y en 1990, Alaska siempre el 60% de la producción nacional de petróleo de Pioneer líquidos. Pioneer fue una de las refinerías de más bajo costo en la costa oeste y tenía una extensa costa occidental de mercadeo en red. La producción de crudo de Alaska de Pioneer proporciona todo el petróleo crudo para su refinación costa oeste y las operaciones de marketing. Esta integración requiere la colaboración y coordinación entre las divisiones para optimizar el rendimiento general y para disminuir el riesgo en general.

Tenga en cuenta que la rentabilidad de esta cartera es del 12% independientemente de la condición climática que prevalece.

La combinación de estos dos valores de riesgo los rendimientos de una cartera con una rentabilidad determinada. Ya que estamos seguros de ganar el 12% de la cartera, es una inversión muy bajo riesgo, comparable a la seguridad de seguridad libre de riesgos, tales como una cuenta de ahorros. Este ejemplo demuestra la reducción del riesgo mediante la diversificación. Mediante la diversificación de la inversión en ambas empresas, el inversor genera una cartera que es un riesgo menor que las dos acciones que lo componen.
Eliminación total del riesgo es posible en este ejemplo, porque hay una perfecta relación negativa entre los rendimientos de las acciones A y B. En la práctica, como una relación perfecta es muy raro. La mayoría de las sociedades de valores tienden a moverse juntos y, por tanto, la eliminación completa del riesgo no es Posible. Sin embargo, siempre hay una cierta falta de paralelismo en los rendimientos de los valores, la diversificación siempre reducir el riesgo. Desde fortunas empresas, y por lo tanto sus declaraciones de existencias. No se mueven completamente en paralelo, la inversión en una acción individual pocos.
El riesgo sistemático y no sistemático

La combinación de valores en las carteras reduce el riesgo: Cuando se combina con otros valores, una parte de la variabilidad de una acción `s en la vuelta se cancela por las variaciones complementarias en los rendimientos de otros valores. Algunas empresas representadas en la cartera puede experimentar condiciones adversas imprevistas (por ejemplo, una huelga salvaje). Sin embargo, esto puede ser compensado por la buena fortuna inesperada de otras empresas en la cartera. Nervertheless, ya que para algunos existencia Precio medida (y devuelve) tienden a avanzar de manera concertada, nota variabilidad ll se puede eliminar mediante la diversificación. Incluso los inversionistas con carteras diversificadas están expuestos al riesgo inherente en el desempeño general del mercado de valores (por ejemplo, la crisis bursátil de octubre de 1987). Por lo tanto, es conveniente dividir el riesgo total de un valor en la porción que le es propio de una empresa específica y puede ser diversificado (llamado riesgo no sistemático) y la porción que es relacionado con el mercado y no diversificable (riesgo sistemático llamada):

TOTAL RISK = Unsystematic risk + Systematic risk (diversifiable risk,firm-specific) (Nondiversifiable risk, market-related)

Figura B ilustra la reducción del riesgo total de valores se añaden a una cartera. El riesgo no sistemático es prácticamente eliminada en las carteras de 30 o 40 títulos procedentes de las industrias que no están estrechamente relacionados. Debido a que el riesgo sistemático que queda es relacionado con el mercado, carteras diversificadas tienden a moverse en tándem con el mercado. Los índices de los mercados populares (el promedio industrial Dow Jones, el S & P 500 y el New York Stock Exchange índice, por ejemplo) son en sí mismos carteras diversificadas y tienden a moverse en paralelo. Por lo tanto, existe una estrecha correspondencia entre las oscilaciones de la rentabilidad de cualquier cartera diversificada y en los rendimientos de los índices bursátiles como el Dow. Ejemplos de factores de riesgo sistemático y no sistemático se enumeran en la tabla B.

De riesgo, rentabilidad, y el equilibrio del mercado

Los inversores tienen aversión al riesgo y deben ser compensados por el riesgo. Por lo tanto, valores de riesgo tienen un precio en el mercado para obtener un rendimiento esperado más alto de valores de bajo riesgo. Esta recompensa adicional, llamado la prima de riesgo, es necesario inducir a los inversionistas risk.averse mantener valores de riesgo. En un mercado dominado por los inversores con aversión al riesgo, debe haber una relación positiva entre riesgo y retorno esperado para alcanzar el equilibrio. El rendimiento esperado de un título libre de riesgo (tales como letras del Tesoro) es la tasa libre de riesgo. El rendimiento esperado de los valores de riesgo puede ser pensado como esta tasa libre de riesgo más una prima de riesgo:
Rs = Rf + Risk Premium
Riesgo del mercado / rentabilidad-off se ilustra en la figura C

TABLA B
Sistemática y no sistemática los factores de riesgo
Ejemplos de factores de riesgo no sistemático
Asistente técnico de una empresa es muerto en un accidente automovilístico.
Una huelga salvaje se declara.
A los competidores extranjeros de bajo costo inesperadamente entra en el mercado de una empresa de productos.
Se descubre petróleo en la propiedad de una empresa.
Ejemplos de factores de riesgo sistemático
Países productores de petróleo instituir un boicot.
Congreso vota por una enorme rebaja tributaria.
La Reserva Federal mantiene una política monetaria restrictiva.
Hay un marcado aumento de las tasas de interés a largo plazo.

PAGINA 560

Supongamos que el beta de la empresa matriz es una. Sin embargo, el coste adecuado de capital para fines de presupuestación de capital no es la Ke derivados de la beta de las acciones del holding. El costo de capital para evaluar las propuestas de inversión de una filial debe reflejar el riesgo asociado con la industria en la que la filial opera. Así, mientras que el beta del holding de un rendimiento un 13% de Ke, las inversiones en la filial de servicios públicos deben ser evaluados utilizando una Ke menor, ya que la industria de servicios públicos es menos riesgosa que la industria de subsidiarios. Por lo tanto, el mercado que se espera (o requiere) de retorno es inferior a la inversión en la filial de servicios públicos. Dado que la industria de las aerolíneas es un riesgo, una mayor ke debe ser utilizada en el presupuesto de capital de una filial de las líneas aéreas.
Aplicación de ke general de la empresa de las filiales individuales daría lugar a malas decisiones. Los buenos proyectos en la filial de servicios públicos serían rechazados, mientras que los proyectos de pobres en la filial aérea serían aceptados. Cuando el costo de capital utilizados en las decisiones de una filial del presupuesto de capital refleja el riesgo asociado con la línea de esa filial de la empresa, lo que garantiza que los retornos del proyecto se mide contra la remuneración al accionista se espera recibir en otras inversiones de riesgo correspondiente.
¿Cómo podemos calcular el beta apropiado para una subsidiaria? Un enfoque obvio es utilizar la versión beta de similares empresas independientes que operan en la misma industria. Las estimaciones resultantes de ke reflejan el nivel de riesgo de la industria y por lo tanto apropiado para las decisiones de inversión sobre una subsidiaria operativa de la misma industria. Si no hay empresas independientes en la industria, una estimación intuitiva de la beta se puede hacer. Esta estimación reflejaría el grado en que las ganancias de la filial y los flujos de efectivo tienden a avanzar de manera concertada con los ingresos de la otra empresa y los flujos de efectivo.
Conclusiones y Advertencias
El CAPM es ampliamente aplicado en la gestión de inversiones y gestión financiera de las empresas. Aunque algunos de los supuestos del modelo son claramente poco realista, prueba empírica demuestran que existe una fuerte relación entre rentabilidad y riesgo, medido por beta. Sin embargo, la naturaleza y la estabilidad de las relaciones predichas por el SML no son totalmente compatibles con estas pruebas. Además, la aplicación del CAPM requiere estimar Km-Rf, la prima de riesgo de mercado, y de RF, la tasa libre de riesgo. Las estimaciones de beta también están sujetos a error. Por lo tanto, el CAPM no debe confiarse en ella como la única respuesta a la determinación del costo de capital.
Sin embargo, el modelo tiene mucho que decir acerca de la forma vuelve se determinan en el mercado de valores. El costo de capital es de por sí difícil de medir. Las deficiencias del CAPM parecen menos graves que los de otros métodos de estimación del costo de capital (por ejemplo, el modelo de crecimiento de los dividendos). Aunque imperfecto, el CAPM representa un enfoque importante para esta difícil tarea. Utilizando el CAPM, en relación con los enfoques más tradicionales de las empresas los gerentes financieros pueden desarrollar estimaciones realistas, útiles del costo del capital propio.

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