The Ohio State University, History Dept.

Colonial Virginia’s Culture during the French and Indian War:
1755-1756

John Rodock
History 3011
Emily Arendt
Due May 22, 2014

Introduction

This research paper contains an analysis of the culture in the colony of Virginia over the whole year of 1755 and beginning of 1756. Most of the research drew upon weekly issues of the Virginia Gazette, the only printed newspaper in the colony at that time. Three dimensions of culture were explored: Virginia’s involvement in the French and Indian War (which was beginning right around 1755), Virginia’s economy, and its religious affiliations. A section on colonists’ relations with Native Americans was also written, of which The Virginia Gazette gave detailed insights and accounts, but due to the page limit of the assignment, the section was omitted.

Involvement in the French and Indian War

In 1730, the population of the Virginia colony was about 114,000. The next 20 years saw an explosion of growth in population due to the increasing demand of indentured servants needed on plantations. Also, Governor Spotswood encouraged immigration to the outskirts of Virginia in the hopes that immigrant townships could alert Virginia’s ports of any possible attacks from Native Americans before their arrival. By the time the French and Indian War had begun, Virginia’s population had climbed to just under 300,000 (Virginia History Series). Virginia’s most profitable crop at the time was tobacco, which exhausted land very quickly, and spurred the plantation owners to make gradual movements inland from the coast. Due to their plans to develop land further West, Virginia plantation owners claimed the vast majority of land in the Ohio River, which was the central piece of territory that the Seven Years’ War was fought over. These extensive land claims, combined with the population boom, arguably made Virginia the most involved American colony in the war. Great Britain’s high expectations for Virginia’s involvement are made clearly in the publications of the Virginia Gazette. Every cover story deals with the French and Indian War, in the form of a speech given by a British General or His Majesty himself, letters from Officers at the battlefield detailing their recent accounts, or even poems about the heroic efforts of the troops. Most issues include a section of Boston reports containing a detailed list of the French Fleet, which includes ship names, number of guns on each ship, and the respective commanding officers (Virginia Gazette, Sep 5, 1755). The British made it very clear through publications in newspapers that their interests in the Ohio River matched those of Virginia’s. They claim- “our Limits Westward extend not only beyond the Apalachian Mountains but very far beyond the Ohio […] Thus the French would keep all the Indian Nations under Subjection and play them off against us, make themselves Masters of the whole Fur Trade, beat us quite out of the Fisheries, and in a little Time drive us clean off the Continent of North-America” (Virginia Gazette, Sep 5, 1755). Great Britain feared that French claims to the Ohio River would eventually destroy all the investments it had made in America. Virginia and Great Britain’s shared interest in the Ohio River created a strong alliance. A published meeting of the General Assembly in Anapolis demonstrates the colonists’ great appreciation toward the British and the alliance. “Think to what Debts they voluntarily and most cheerfully Subject themselves, by making such Preparations for our Defence and Protection” (Virginia Gazette, July 11, 1755). Colonists were more than willing to provide large provincial forces and pay premium-level taxes on British imports at the time. The General Assembly at Williamsburg initiated these taxes on its own, targeting tobacco and rum: the two most profitable products for plantation owners. Published in the Virginia Gazette are a series of a dozen acts, which include- “an Impost of Three Shillings and Six Pence a Hoghead, on Tobacco for the raising of 8,000£”, and “an additional Duty on Rum and other distilled Spirits” (Virginia Gazette, July 11, 1755). Virginia had other, more unconventional ways to support the war effort. Lotteries were created, the contributions of which came from extra ticket revenue after the prize pay-offs (Sep 5, 1755). There is published evidence that women made contributions as well. “Even the Ladies in this City, we are told, seem to be anxious how to demonstrate their Loyalty in a particular Manner, on the present Occasion; some propose the making of the aforesaid Waitcoats” (Virginia Gazette, Oct 17, 1755). Relations with the British were so strong, that King George III never made any formal agreements or requests of supplies to the colonies. He writes in a letter- “As to an Agreement, that each Colony should further a certain Quota of Men or Money for the Service, none was entered into” (Virginia Gazette, July 11, 1755). It was mentioned several times the lack of experience and undisciplined nature of the troops provided by Virginia. Its troops were unpopular among those of the Province of New York, who were frequently cited by British Officers as having higher levels of readiness and willingness to carry out taxing expeditions. (Virginia Gazette, Aug 15, 1755). Two military figures in Virginia who received the most attention in the Virginia Gazette were General Edward Braddock, and under him Colonel George Washington. Despite all the glorified press they received in Virginia, they both had losing records in the French and Indian War. One popular explanation, cited in the Gazette, points out the fact that Virginia was a colony full of diverse immigrants, who hadn’t seen as much war, nor received the extensive military training British men traditionally do. In the famous defeat of General Braddock at Fort Duquesne, during which battle he was killed, William Hunter writes- “lay the whole Blame of that unfortunate Affair on the two Regiments that were sent over from Ireland to Virginia” (Virginia Gazette, Nov 28, 1755). The General’s defeat devastated the people of Virginia and exposed frustration toward their untrained troops. One soldier writes- “Did our People go only to eat and drink, or with an Expectation not to fight? Did they think Crown-Point would come to them?” (Virginia Gazette, Nov 28, 1755)

During this time, desertion rates among Virginia troops were very high. Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia often posted notices regarding deserted soldiers in the advertisements section of the Gazette, citing- “Whereas many of the Soldiers have deserted and carried with them the Public Arms […] Notice is also given to all Soldiers who have deserted, That if they will return to their Duty at Winchester, Fredericksburg, or Alexandria, by the 20th Day of September, they shall be received without any Punishment” (Virginia Gazette, Sep 5, 1755). This is a reflection of the lack of discipline in the Virginia troops, as desertion rates were so high in his colony that Dinwiddie was forced to make an offer to take them back without punishment. In previous issues of the Gazette, Dinwiddie wasn’t so generous. Morale in Virginia was very high in the early months of 1755, but the loss of Braddock at Fort Duquesne was a critical hit, at which point the colonists realized the lack of potential in their provincial forces and weren’t prepared to battle through the winter. Morale never seemed to climb back up to its previous levels in Virginia.

Economy

In the 1750s Virginia was a plantation economy. The advertisements section of the Virginia Gazette is a good indicator of what goods were being produced at the time. Commodities that were offered up for local sale included varieties of fruit trees, and hogsheads of tobacco and rum. The majority of ads were for sales of slaves, horses, lots of land, and entire plantations. Notices of runaway servants, slaves, and deserted soldiers were also posted, with respective rewards. This suggests that the advertisements section didn’t apply to most colonists, as only the Gentry could afford such products.
One way of maximizing crop yields across the colony was to create an open source forum for the latest farming techniques by publishing them in the newspaper. One colonist requests, “As the planting and manufacturing of Indigo may be of great Consequences to this Colony, you inserting the few following Hints will greatly oblige” (Virginia Gazette, Oct 17, 1755). What follows is a detailed description of the production of Indigo from start to finish. Local apothecaries frequently posted medicine advertisements. These were a key part of the economy, because the greatest leap in science in the 18th century arguably came from advances in medicine, and it’s prevalence in the newspapers proved its popularity among the colonists. One ad posted by a “Doctor James” shows how large the market for medicine had become. He cites dozens of herbs imported from all around the world. Given that Virginia was in a time of war, the most important of those listed are Balsam, an herb found in a wide variety of plants that increases the blood flow to a wound and helps fight bacteria. Spanish flies are green beetles only found in Spain, whose wings can be crushed into a plaster to be spread over blisters (Wikipedia). The Doctor even had access to French herbs such as camphor root, an antimicrobial substance the French would find in certain trees in Indonesia. A variety of “fever powders” are listed in the ad as well. Most of these were made using crops grown on plantations specific to Virginia, such as oil of turpentine and various sugar products. Ironically, the list includes many sugar products, such as “almond sugar plumbs, barley sugar, brown and white sugar candy, …” (Virginia Gazette, July 11, 1755). Although married women had no economic independence at the time, it’s important to note that medicine ads such as the above must have been targeting them. In colonial Virginia women were taught by their mothers to be the doctor and pharmacist of the household, since at the time apothecaries were expensive and couldn’t be afforded by most families (Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation). They had a vast knowledge of the uses of herbs that their husbands lacked, so the presence of these medicinal ads indicate women’s participation in the advertisement section of the Gazette.

Religious Affiliations

Unlike Massachusetts, which aimed to create one majority religion to dominate culture and political organization, Virginia was tolerant of all religions. Presbyterians and Protestants were recruited and encouraged to settle in Virginia in the early 1700s, despite the Anglican Church being the official form of worship tied to the government. Most likely the tolerance originated from the indifference of the Gentry, who were more interested in wealth accumulation, gambling, and public competition than their religion. Nonetheless, Religious tolerance is how the Gentry in Virginia gained support from the Protestants during the French and Indian War---by the Protestants’ willingness to fight for their religious freedom. A Reverend George Whitefield writes,

“A more obediental and zealous Thankfulness for the Civil and Religious Liberties we enjoy; or make them any Way instrumental in stirring up my Fellow Protestants, and dear Countrymen to exert themselves more vigorously at this critical Juncture, against those who, if Conquerors, would quickly rob us of those invaluable Blessings” (Virginia Gazette, Dec 5 1755)

The Enlightenment had a substantial effect on the religious views of Virginia colonists, who were quickly moving toward religious ideals ground in science and reason, and away from idol worship and superstitions. A Protestant Reverend describes a religious ceremony he witnessed during a visit to Lisbon. The ceremony occurred during a long draught there, and was intended “for the imploring the much longed-for Blessing of Rain”. Upon seeing jewel-covered statues carried through the procession, and many people around them beating themselves with whips and cutting themselves with knives, the Reverend continues- “For as the Sight itself disgusted me, so I am persuaded the bare Narration of it, though ever so short, cannot be very pleasant to you, who I know abhor every Thing that favours Superstition and Idolatry […] such Spiritual Slavery, and such blind Obedience to a papal power!” (Virginia Gazette, Dec 5 1755). Virginia’s progressive outlook on religion, especially with such Gentry as Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, is the reason why the adoption of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom made it into the state legislature just 30 years later. It can therefore be said the separation of government in religion by the Declaration of Independence can be attributed to Virginia’s religious views before the Revolutionary War.

Bibliography

Hunter, William. “Letter from Albany, May 6 “, Virginia Gazette, August 15, 1755. Accessed May 21, 2014.

Hunter, William. “Extract from the Unfortunate Officer; or, the History of Mons. Bertin, Marquis de Fratteaux “, Virginia Gazette, January 16, 1756. Accessed May 21, 2014.

Hunter, William. “Letter I. Lisbon, March 1754 “, Virginia Gazette, December 5, 1755. Accessed May 21, 2014.

Hunter, William. “BOSTON, August 4. “, Virginia Gazette, September 5, 1755. Accessed May 21, 2014.

Hunter, William. “ANNAPOLIS, June 16. “, Virginia Gazette, July 11, 1755. Accessed May 21, 2014.

Hunter, William. “To his Excellency Horatio Sharpe, Governor and Commander in Chief in and over the Province of Maryland. “, Virginia Gazette, July 11, 1755. Accessed May 21, 2014.

Hunter, William. “From the Connoisseur, July 10. “, Virginia Gazette, Nov 28, 1755. Accessed May 21, 2014.

Hunter, William. “To the Printer, Surry County Virginia. “, Virginia Gazette, Oct 17, 1755. Accessed May 21, 2014.

Hunter, William. “Advertisements“, Virginia Gazette, Oct 10, 1755. Accessed May 21, 2014.

Hunter, William. “Advertisements“, Virginia Gazette, Aug 15, 1755. Accessed May 21, 2014.

Jamestown-Yorktown Foundation, “Colonial Medicine”, http://www.historyisfun.org/pdfbooks/colonial_medicine.pdf, published July, 1992. Accessed May 19, 2014.

Virginia History Series. “Life, Growth, and Development of the Virginia Colony” http://www.virginiahistoryseries.org/linked/unit%206.%20life.growth.development%20of%20va%20colony.slides.pdf. Accessed May 19, 2014.

Wikipedia. “Spanish Fly Medicinal Uses”, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_fly#Medical_uses, accessed May 19, 2014.