The initial lines of Porphyria’s Lover similarly imply the protagonist’s unusual frame of mind. The use of pathetic fallacy and personification, for instance, “the sullen wind” is not only effective in creating a cold and melancholy atmosphere, but may be representative of the narrator’s mind; consequently, there is a strong sense of foreboding. The abnormal psychology of the narrator is further exemplified through the description of how the wind “did its worst to vex the lake”. Likewise, the wind is “awake” and tears down “the elm-tops for spite”. Thus, the wind is perhaps an emblem of the narrator’s destructive capacity: it could be argued that the lake is representative of Porphyria, and the wind is representative of the narrator’s anger towards Porphyria. In this sense, the narrator’s anger is possibly a consequence of his inability to possess the femininity that Porphyria exudes. Similarly, in The Fall of the House of Usher, Poe’s imagery describing the decadence of the house is perhaps an attempt to symbolise the narrator’s degenerating mental state. Also, the “Haunted Palace” that is occupied by “evil things... (that) assailed the monarch’s high estate” is possibly an allusion to how his mind is being possessed by the malevolent forces that ostensibly surround the house.

In The Wasp Factory, Frank’s father also displays an abnormal state of mind, which is demonstrated through his efforts to exert constant authority over his daughter. Mr Cauldhame has ultimately left Frank excluded from society through his decision to conceal his identity and home educate him. More sinisterly, however, Angus, through experimentation, has essentially created a contemporary Frankenstein. Fundamentally, Angus has suppressed Frank’s innate feminine characteristics through experimental hormone therapy and has indoctrinated her with misogynistic views. This enables Mr Cauldhame to