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Containerization

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Hvordan og hvorfor har ”containerisering” revolusjonert verdens varetransport og bidratt til økonomisk globalisering?

Containere, store firkantede kasser i massivt stål, er i dag helt vanlig å bruke i varetransport. De lastes på skip, tog og biler og skipes av gårde til bestemmelsesdestinasjonen. En container er ikke spesielt komplisert, allikevel har innføringen av containere i varetransporten ført til det en nærmest kan kalle en revolusjon hva angår handel mellom land og kontinenter.
Containeren, slik vi kjenner den i dag, er en relativt ny oppfinnelse. Æren for oppfinnelsen av den moderne containeren tilskrives ofte amerikaneren Malcolm McLean (Cudahy, 2006). McLean drev i førkrigstida et lite lastebilfirma i USA og irriterte seg grenseløst over hvor lang tid og det tok å få lastet varene han leverte over fra bil til skip. På denne tida foregikk det meste av omlasting manuelt og kostnadene knyttet til å få lastet og losset skip og andre transportmidler utgjorde en svært stor del, ofte brorparten, av de totale shippingkostnadene. Etter krigen, nærmere bestemt i 1956, forsøkte McLean seg på en ny måte å transportere varer på. Han kontraherte et lasteskip fra New York til Houston. Han koblet lasterommene fra drivlinja på 58 lastebiler, og lastet hele skrogene på skipet. Vel framme i Houston ble de samme lasterommene koblet på 58 nye drivlinjer. Omlastningen tok en brøkdel av tiden i forhold til ved tradisjonelle metoder. Varetransport ved hjelp av containere var et faktum.
Det skal sies at McLean ikke var den første som eksperimenterte transport av hele kasser fylt med varer. Forsøk med omlastbare containere hadde vært utført så mye som et halvt århundre tidligere i Storbritannia og av den amerikanske hæren under 2. verdenskrig (Wikipedia, 2011). En forklaring på at McLean likevel ofte tilskrives æren for å ha startet prosessen mot en ”containerisert” økonomi kan være at McLean stod for en ny måte å tenke på for transportselskaper. Formålet for et transportselskap skiftet fra å drifte båter, biler og tog til å befordre kundenes gods fra et sted og helt fram til bestemmelsesstedet (Levinson, 2006). Fra 1956 og de neste 20 årene utover gikk utviklingen fra lastebilskrog via en rekke forskjellige containere og festemekanismer mot mer og mer standardiserte containere og festemekanismer. Det finnes i dag forskjellige ISO-standarder for containerstørrelser for best mulig kompatibilitet mellom forskjellige transportmidler.
Logistikkbransjen innså fort at containeren ville få stor betydning for varetransport, men en kan likevel mistenke containerens betydning for varehandelen for først å være underestimert. Som et eksempel på dette kan nevnes Harvard-økonomen Benjamin Chinitz som på ’50-tallet spådde at containeriseringen først og fremst ville New York området som ville være i stand til å frakte sine varer billigere til sørstatene og dermed bli mer konkurransedyktige (Wikipedia, 2011). Mange med ham forutså at fraktselskapene ville innføre containere på eksisterende fraktruter. Få så imidlertid for seg at innføringen av containere ville endre verdens fraktruter radikalt med økt verdenshandel og flytting av produksjon til nye områder som for eksempel Sørøst Asia som resultat. (BBC, 2008)
Figuren ovenfor viser de største containerrutene i verden. Tykkere streker betyr større volum containerfrakt på ruta. Som vi ser, går de største containerrutene fra Sør-Øst Asia til USA og Europa. Volumet er også betydelig større fra Sør-Øst Asia enn det er til verdensdelen. En ser tydelig at spesielt Sørøst-Asia har nytt godt av containeriseringen. Flere bedrifter har valgt å lokalisere seg her for å kunne nyte fordel av de store mengdene rimelig arbeidskraft denne verdensdelen tilbyr. Dette har bidratt til sterk økonomisk vekst for landene i denne regionen. Som følge av dette har containerfrakt i denne delen av verden hatt en voldsom vekst de siste årene, og prognosene tilsier at veksten skal fortsette også i de kommende år. Grafen under viser utviklingen i containervolum fraktet mellom Sørøst Asia og resten av verden, samt fremtidig prognose for denne trafikken. Figur 1: Historisk og estimert utvikling i containervolum fra 1980 til 2020. Fra 1980 til 2002 var gjennomsnittlig vekst i containervolum 8,5 % årlig, mens estimat 2002-2020 er på 6,5 %. Kilde: UNESCAP (http://www.unescap.org/ttdw/publications/tfs_pubs/pub_2398/)
Kostnader i forbindelse ved frakt av varer kan i grove trekk deles i forskjellige hoveddeler. Laste -og lossekostnader, såkalte terminal costs, samt avstandsrelaterte kostnader, line -haul costs. Man har i tillegg kostnader i forbindelse med omlasting, også kjent som "break of bulk" (Bivand, 2011). Det er i første rekke omlastningskostnadene containerne har sørget for å redusere kraftig. Containeren har ikke bidratt til å gjøre det billigere og i seg selv seile fra for eksempel Kina til USA. Der man ser de store kostnadsreduksjonene er hver gang varer skal fra et transportmiddel fra et annet. Å frakte en vare fra produksjonssted til bestemmelsessted involverer ofte flere slike omlastinger. Før containerens inntreden var slike omlastinger svært dyre og tidkrevende. Det var ofte snakk om dager og uker for å tømme et skip og laste om varene til biler eller tog. Containeren har sørget for at denne omlastingen nå kan gjøres på timer med påfølgende reduksjon i lønnskostnader, redusert liggetid for ski, kortere tid for kapitalbinding i varer under transport osv. En annen hyggelig effekt var at varene med et ble bedre sikret inne i en låst container. Problemer med svinn og tyveri fra verdens havner ble med et forsvinnende små sammenliknet med før containeriseringen.
Kan en gi containeriseringen æren, eller skylda, for en stadig mer globalisert verden hvor mye vareproduksjon er flyttet fra tradisjonelle industriland til land med rimeligere arbeidskraft? Selv om en vanskelig kan se for seg en slik endring i verdenshandelen uten containeren og mulighetene den gir for enkel og effektiv varetransport, kan en nok tenke seg en rekke andre faktorer som også har bidratt til den økende globaliseringen vi er vitne til. En kan nok imidlertid innvende at containeriseringen bare er en av mange faktorer som har bidratt til en stadig mer globalisert verden. Av andre årsaker kan nevnes den kraftige kostnadsreduksjonen og kvalitetsforbedringen i telekommunikasjon og reduksjonen av handelsbarrierer mellom land. (Manga, 2011). Containerisering må med andre ord sees på som en av mange drivere for globalisering.
Containeriseringen har altså ført til en rekke positive virkninger. Betydelige reduserte fraktkostnader, muligheter for å laste om varer og en brøkdel av tiden det ville tatt tidligere og påfølgende mulighet for økning i internasjonal handel er kanskje de viktigste og tydeligste fordelene containeriseringen har brakt med seg. Som med så mye annet har likevel ikke containeriseringen medført kun positive virkninger. Den har også noen negative og til dels problematiske og kontroversielle konsekvenser.

Containere fører kanskje til atomlasting går fortere, men selve containeren må også fraktes, noe som fører til økt vekt for og tilsvarende økt drivstofforbruk med tilhørende negative effekter for miljøet. Også den økte varetransporten som følge av globaliseringen har en negativ innvirkning på miljøet. Å frakte en tom container fra et sted til et annet for å fylle den på bestemmelsesstedet er også svært lite gunstig, både kostnadsmessig og miljømessig.
Det at containere er lukket for innsyn er kanskje en fordel da det gjør det vaskelig for potensielle tyver å vite hva lasten inneholder. Problemet er bare at det også gjør at tollerne får problemer med å vite hva containerne faktisk inneholder. Med det høye antallet containere som hver dag ankommer og forlater de forskjellige lands grenser, er det umulig for tollerne å kontrollere containernes innhold. Selv om det tas stikkprøver, er sannsynligheten for at en container med ulovlig last blir oppdaget svært liten. De senere årene har det også vokst fram en frykt for at terrorister skal nyttiggjøre seg containere til å frakte utstyr til terrorangrep.
Som tidligere nevnt, har containeriseringen fått mye av æren for globaliseringen vi harr sett de siste 50 årene, men den har også måttet tåle å få skylden for en del av de negative virkningene globaliseringen har medført. Negative effekter for klimaet er allerede nevnt. En annen effekt av containeriseringen som har vært kritisert er virkningen den har hatt for sysselsetningen i I-land. Mye produksjon har blitt flagget ut fra I-land til land med billigere arbeidskraft. En prosses fagforeningene i de berørte bransjer har vært lite positive til (Wikipedia, 2011) . Den bransjen som likevel har blitt kanskje verst berørt er de ansatte ved havnene. Containerne har redusert behovet for manuelt arbeid i forbindelse ved lasting og lossing av skip betraktelig.
Ordtelling: 1479
Bibliografi
BBC. (2008, november 20). Anatomy of the box. Hentet Oktober 8, 2011 fra BBC.co.uk: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7700818.stm
Bivand, R. (2011, September 27). Samferdsel. NHH, Bergen.
Cudahy, B. J. (2006). The Containership Reolution. Hentet Oktober 4, 2011 fra worldshipping.org: http://www.worldshipping.org/pdf/container_ship_revolution.pdf
Levinson, M. (2006). The Box: how the shipping container made the world smaller and the world economy bigger. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Manga, P. (2011, Mars). International Business. University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. (2005). Regional Shipping and Port Development Strategies: Container Traffic Forecast.
Wikipedia. (2011, September 24). Containerization. Hentet Oktober 4, 2011 fra Wikipedia.org: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Containerization

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