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4-1-2013

A Case Study of Corruption and Public
Accountability in Nigeria
Chinelo Okekeocha
Kennesaw State University

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Okekeocha, Chinelo, "A Case Study of Corruption and Public Accountability in Nigeria" (2013). Dissertations, Theses and Capstone
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A Case Study of Corruption and Public Accountability in Nigeria

Chinelo Okekeocha

A Practicum Paper
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Master of Public Administration

Kennesaw State University
May 2013

A Case Study of Corruption and Public Accountability in Nigeria
Executive Summary
In 2011, Nigeria was ranked 143th out of 182 countries surveyed by the Transparency
International in its corruption perception index indicating the level of corruption in the country as compared to other countries. Although this came as an improvement from the previous years, it did not result from an improved system of governance, rather it was due to an increase in the number of countries that participated in the survey. Between 2010 and 2011, Nigeria’s rank actually decreased by 9 spots, showing an increase in corruption despite the efforts of the government to rid the nation of corruption. This survey shows a lack of accountability from public officials and a lax system of governance in the country. As a result corruptible acts are not harshly penalized and easier to get away with, within the country’s public sector.
It is important to highlight the public sector in Nigeria because it plays a key role in the implementation of public services that are vital to the economic growth of the country. It coordinates the federal ministries, advises political officials, formulates and implements government’s policies, gathers and supplies data for policymakers, ensures continuity of services and public relations services. These roles are important in running the country efficiently because the public sector can either make or ruin any administration.
The purpose of this study is twofold: 1) to explore the problem of corruption and public accountability in Nigeria, and 2) to offer some reform measures for the reduction of corruption in the public sector. It is hopeful that the public sector will become more efficient and effective if the recommendations delineated in this analysis are implemented. In order to accomplish the study purpose, the analysis uses an exploratory case method to give a historic synopsis of the country and the impact of politics on corruption. This is followed by a literature review on the

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causes of corruption and the need for government accountability. In sum, the paper concludes with some recommendations on how to increase accountability in the public sector.

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A Case Study of Corruption and Public Accountability in Nigeria
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank God Almighty for giving me the grace to complete a masters degree in public administration. I want to thank my family and friends, for their continuous support and encouragement, because I could not have done this without them. My gratitude goes to the entire
Master of Public Administration (MPA) faculty for teaching me what it takes to become an outstanding public servant. I will forever cherish what I have learned.
To Dr. Andrew Ewoh, the professor that inspired me to not only want more out of my education at Kennesaw State University but also to aspire for greatness. Your mentorship and continued support ensured my success in the MPA Program. Thank you for giving me the opportunity to be a better student and in the process created a passion for scholarly work. I am a published author because of you and was able to present at three professional conferences in my short time in the program. I am forever grateful to your commitment and passion for crafting out exceptional students.
Lastly, to my father, my number one source of inspiration, I dedicate this degree to you. I love you. Thank you for always telling me I can do it.

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A Case Study of Corruption and Public Accountability in Nigeria
Table of Contents

Executive Summary ......................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ iii
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................................... 2
Need and Relevancy ....................................................................................................................... 3
Political History of Nigeria ............................................................................................................. 4
Literature Review............................................................................................................................ 7
Methodology ................................................................................................................................. 18
Analysis of the Causes of Corruption in the Public Sector ........................................................... 19
Consequences of Public Sector Corruption in Nigeria ................................................................. 23
Case Studies .................................................................................................................................. 25
Public Sector Accountability ........................................................................................................ 28
Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 31
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 36

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A Case Study of Corruption and Public Accountability in Nigeria
Introduction
In 2011, Nigeria was ranked 143th out of 182 countries surveyed by the corruption perception index indicating the level of corruption in the country as compared to other countries
(Akosile 2011). Although this rank came as an improvement from the previous years, it did not result from an improved system of governance, rather it was due to an increase in the number of countries that participated in the survey. Between 2010 and 2011, Nigeria rank actually decreased by 9 spots, showing an increase in corruption despite the government efforts to fight corruption (Akosile 2011). The Transparency International index scores countries according to the perception of public sector corruption. This ranking is based on certain criteria which include bribery of public servants, cuts in public procurement, embezzlement of public funds, and the effectiveness of the public sector’s anti-corruption efforts (Akosile 2011). Nigeria’s rank from the survey shows that there is a lack of accountability from public officials, making corruptible acts more attractive and easier to get away with, within the country’s public sector.
For a country to have a high perception of public corruption in and of itself is not bad but for a nation like Nigeria that has recently undergone a change in its government structure, it could be perceived as negative. The nation has experienced an increase in cases relating to violent acts because of the emergence of Boko Haram, an extremist organization whose ultimate goal is to make Islam the official religion in the country. The group targets Christians and government officials and is slowly spreading across the North with new cases of violent attacks being recorded outside its previous geographic region (Stewart 2012). This should spark the attention of the government because extremist groups like Boko Haram can take advantage of core issues like government corruption, to raise public support for their cause. Despite the

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country’s improvement since becoming democratic, there is a need for government to pay attention to the problem of corruption. By taking appropriate actions to reduce corruption, the citizens will increase their positive perception of the government for being responsive and effective in its promotion of efficient public sector organizations (Stewart 2012).

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is twofold: 1) to explore the problem of corruption and public accountability in Nigeria, and 2) to offer some reform measures for the reduction of corruption in the public sector. It is hopeful that the public sector will become more efficient and effective if the recommendations delineated in this analysis are implemented. In order to accomplish the study purpose, the analysis uses an exploratory case method to trace the political history of
Nigeria from independence to the present time. The paper explores the impact of politics on the implied culture of corruption in the public sector. Furthermore, it discusses some of the major causes of corruption in the public sector, and uses these causes to induce some appropriate policy recommendations for reducing the level of corruption in Nigeria with substantial accountability mechanisms. Need and Relevancy
Nigeria has a rich political background from colonization to post independence democratic governance. The country gained its independence in 1960 and had democracy only for less than a decade before a military takeover; nonetheless, this takeover was very chaotic because it was followed by a series of a coup d’états of one military regime after another.
Although the nation finally gained full democracy in 1999, it still suffers from the remnants of

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the military regimes because some top officials in the present government once held leadership positions in the military.
It is important to highlight the public sector in Nigeria because it is an essential part of the government and it plays a key role in the implementation of services that are vital to the economic growth of the country. It coordinates the federal ministries, advises political officials, formulates and implements government’s policies, gathers and supplies data for policy makers, ensures continuity of services and public relations services. These roles are important in running an efficient administration, because the public sector can either make or mar any administration.
In analyzing the public sector, it is necessary to look at its genesis and the significant reforms that were adopted. This will provide a better understanding of the struggles being encountered and possible recommendations to overcome them. Moreover, there is a need to examine the influences of politics on the public sector and whether it can stall the sector’s ability to be efficient in the delivery of services to the citizens. Furthermore, it is critical to look at the origins of corruption in the public sector, to analyze these issues and shed some light on why some government officials engage in corrupt practices against the basic objectives of their jobs.
By examining all these factors, the study provides a better understanding of the Nigerian public sector, its level of corruption and calls for the implementation of policies that will reduce corruption. The case study begins with a discussion of the political history of Nigeria. This is followed by a literature review, the study methodology and an analysis of the causes and consequences of corruption as they pertain to public sector accountability. In sum the paper concludes with some recommendations on how to assure accountability and reduce corruption in the public sector.

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Political History of Nigeria: An Overview
To understand the need for accountability in the public sector, it is important to analyze the structure of governance in Nigeria by discussing the political history of the country. Nigeria was colonized by the British and gained full independence on October 1st, 1960, and was comprised of three regions: northern, western, and eastern regions. The country was under a constitution similar to that of the British with a parliamentary system of governance. Each of the three regions had a certain degree of sovereignty but the federal government was given exclusive powers in the areas of defense, foreign relations, commercial and fiscal policies. In this parliamentary system, the northern region had more seats in parliament than the western and eastern regions combined, which meant that no major decision could be made in the Nigerian government without the approval of the north. The southerners (i.e., a combination of the western and eastern region) did not like the favoritism that was given to the northern region because it meant that the north could politically control Nigeria forever. There were two solutions that could alter the north’s control of the country; one would be through a constitutional amendment (which was unlikely to happen since the north controlled the parliament and would not want to give up power) and the other option would be through a violent takeover by the southerners (Siollun 2005).
In 1963, Nigeria became a federal republic and annexed the Midwest as the fourth region of the country. This established the federal system with three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial, and also three levels of government; federal, state and local government to share political power and the country’s resources (U.S. Department of State 2011). This method of governance did not last for too long because of the friction between the north and the south. Therefore, in 1966 the military took over via a coup d’état and assumed full control of the

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country with the claim that the public officials who controlled government were not doing their jobs efficiently. Coup d’états are sudden overthrow of governments which are usually done by the military. In the case of Nigeria, this coup was orchestrated by junior officers in the military.
Some of the northerners felt that this coup was an attempt by the Igbo people of the East to dominate the country. Following the successful coup d’état, General Ironsi an Igbo military leader emerged as the Nigeria new head of state. He decreed that the federal system of government would be replaced with a unitary system, and opined that an autocratic military regime that had centralized power was the best fit for the country. The northerners did not approve the decision of a new transition in government because they felt that they would be marginalized and as a result orchestrated a countercoup six months later to get rid of General
Ironsi and take control of the government (Chapin 1991).
Nigeria went through a series of coup d’états from 1966 to 1976 and four military head of states within that time span, these leaders assumed control of government through different coup d’états. In 1976, General Olusegun Obasanjo, the then military head of state decided to relinquish his military power into the hands of civilian leaders. Consequently, President Shehu
Shagari emerged as the first democratically elected leader in over a decade, citizens had high hopes for his presidency as a change from tyranny and autocratic rule to a new era of government accountability. However, President Shagari was later accused of corruption and electoral fraud. Similarly, the country experienced an economic decline under his leadership, while religious and political violence were rampant in the nation. For these reasons, President
Shagari was overthrown by a military leader, General Muhammadu Buhari in 1983, and this coup was welcomed by most Nigerians (U.S. Department of State 2011).

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After General Buhari’s military takeover in 1983, he was overthrown two years later via another coup d’état with General Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida becoming the new military leader. General Babangida was in control of government for almost a decade, and in 1989 decided to legalize the formation of political parties in the country. In 1992, he banned all political parties and formed two major political ones and named them Social Democratic Party and National Republican Convention and encouraged all Nigerians to join either party. He allowed elections to hold and the country voted for Chief M.K.O. Abiola as the new president, but General Ibrahim Babangida annuled the elections and remained in office. This action angered the Nigerian masses and the citizens started protesting (U.S. Department of State 2011).
This action infuriated the Nigerian public and it caused uproar in the country, which compelled General Babangida to give up power to Ernest Shonekan who became the interim president. During his short tenure in office, Shonekan tried to create new measures to ensure that the country experiences a smooth transition to democratic governance. His abrupt dismal came as a result of his neglect of the military, his defense secretary who was appointed with other members devised a coup d’état in November of 1993, just a few months into Shonekan’s administration. General Sani Abacha became the new head of state but Nigeria still remained under military rule with no promise of a democratic government in sight (U.S. Department of
State 2011).
The sudden death of Sani Abacha in 1998 gave Nigerians an opportunity to transition into a democratic nation crowded with the help of the interim head of state, General Abdulsalami
Abubakar, who was keen on making Nigeria a democratic country. Nigerians were finally able to come out to vote for the first time in six years to elect a leader of their choice. As a result,
President Olusegun Obasanjo, an ex-military leader became the first elected democratic leader of

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Nigeria after sixteen years of military regimes and was sworn into office on May 29, 1999. At this time, Nigeria was suffering from economic stagnation and the decline of most of its social institutions (Nmehielle 2004). President Obasanjo had a huge responsibility to reconstruct the nation and make it a stable and peaceful society.
It can be recapitulated from this brief history that Nigeria experienced a lot of transitional governments and leaders. This means that the political system of the country is not strong because it experienced a variety of political transformations and ethnic changes that make it hard for a smooth transition. This directly impacted the public sector, since the political environment in the country determines whether the civil service will be a strong or a weak system. In fact while the public servants can fulfill the wishes of the government in the implementation of public services they can falter if the government is unstable.

Literature Review
Corruption is defined as "an arrangement that involves an exchange between two parties
(the demander and the supplier) which (i) has an influence on the allocation of resources either immediately or in the future; and (ii) involves the use or abuse of public or collective responsibility for private ends" (Macrae 1982, 678; cf Salisu 2006, 3). The International
Monetary Fund defined corruption as “abuse of authority or trust for private benefit: and is a temptation indulged in not only by public officials but also by those in positions of trust or authority in private enterprises or non-profit organizations” (Wolfe and Gurgen 2000).
Corruption can be very tragic to nations and its pervasiveness can lead to low economic performance of countries, especially those in developing countries like sub-Saharan African nations. It has been documented by analysts that corruption in Nigeria has been a hindrance to its

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economic development (Iroghama 2011). Nigeria has been ranked very low on the Berlin-based
Transparency International of corrupt countries in the world. The rankings were based on weighted average of corruption perception indices. The overall index measures the degree to which public officials and politicians in particular countries are involved in corrupt practices such as accepting bribes, taking illicit payments in public procurement and embezzling public funds (Salisu 2006).
The Corruption Perception Index evaluates government corruption on a global scale and the Transparency International (TI) has been evaluating government corruption perception since
1995 and has been monitoring Nigeria’s CPI since 1996. The organization has a mission of stopping corruption and promoting transparency, accountability, and integrity around the world.
The organization produces a specific report annually on Nigeria that evaluates the perception of government corruption in the society based on several surveys taken among the public (Stewart
2012). As was earlier mentioned, it is important that the Nigerian government pay close attention to these reports. Public perception on how the government deals with issues of corruption matters because extremist groups like Boko Haram can take advantage of a lack of government interference to gather support for their cause. These groups can portray the government as being inefficient in dealing with such situations.
There are different degrees of corruption but this analysis focuses on corruption in the public sector. Bureaucratic corruption occurs ‘in the public administration’ or ‘the implementation end of politics.’ This kind of corruption is known as ‘low level’ and ‘street level’ corruption. This is the type of corruption that citizens encounter in their daily lives, they are confronted by it in places like the hospitals, schools, local licensing offices, police, taxing offices and various other public agencies” (Dike 2002, 2). Bureaucrats have rules and regulations that

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they are supposed to follow which promotes uniformity and achieves equity. Street-level bureaucrats perform their duties by making decisions based on individual cases brought before them. They are given bureaucratic discretion which is the ability to decide how policies should be implemented but if this power is abused it can lead to corruption (Lipsky 2010).
An efficient and neutral public bureaucracy is essential in a democratic system because it leads to an efficient and effective public bureaucracy. The public bureaucracy has a significant role to play in the administration of government, it ensures that the delivery of goods and services are evenly distributed to ensure equity. A corrupt bureaucracy can lead to a decrease in the quality of goods and services being provided by the government. The public bureaucracy in
Nigeria is plagued with a number of problems that have hindered its effective role in the country
(Okotoni 2001). One problem encountered by the public sectors is the politicization of jobs in the sector. Bureaucrats are supposed to be non-partisan but some positions in the public sector in
Nigeria are highly political. Some positions in the public sector during the military era have some political influence, offices like the Permanent Secretary and the Head of Service were given to political military officers. Although there is nothing wrong with civil servants having an interest in politics, it can sometimes undermine the decisions made by their office. Public perception on such a decision will be highly criticized as being unprofessional and unfair because of their political party affiliation (Okotoni 2001).
Another problem facing the public sector is the widespread level of corruption in the country. Nigeria is a developing country and its citizens lack some of the basic necessities of life.
Therefore, when individuals find themselves in government, they try to embezzle enough money to provide for their families and future generations. In view of this, it is therefore imperative that, to adequately address the problem of corruption, the country need to have some economic

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development to ensure that it is providing the right services to its citizens. The reason why most public officials who embezzle money commit such offence is their need to survive and provide for their families. In other to reduce corruption, the Nigerian government needs to better cater to the needs of its employees so that they do not resort to corrupt means to provide for their families and future generation. Also, introducing a public policy that seriously punishes people caught in the act can serve as a deterrent to public servants, making corrupt acts both risky and unattractive
(Ameh 2000).
The effects of corruption on a nation’s socio-political and economic development are countless. Corruption negatively affects economic growth and reduces the level of investment in the country. Foreign and domestic businesses are reluctant to invest in a nation where public agencies are not functioning effectively and a chance for their investments to be misused.
Consequently, poverty and income inequalities are tied to corruption. It is essential for the government to reform the public sector to reduce the level of corruption because of the negative impact that the nation is facing as a result (Dike 2002).
The principal concepts of ethical culture in any society require that public officials should be accountable to the public while performing their job duties. These two concepts are important and critical in nation-building and formation of the national character of a country. It is also essential because it helps scholars to better understand the dynamics of corruption in a country and can help reduce some of the problems of public sector corruption (Omotoye 2011). For effective control of corruption in Nigeria, the government must develop a culture of openness, in contrast to the current bureaucratic climate of secrecy in the administration. Furthermore, it is important to have a merit system (instead of the tribal bias, state of origin and nepotism or favoritism) should be adopted in employment. This ensures that the most qualified are in charge

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of government and are running it efficiently. More importantly, the leadership must be able to tackle the problem of corruption (Dike 2002).

Public Sector in Nigeria
The public sector is the part of the economy that is owned and controlled by government, and provides basic services to the citizens. It is the means by which the government relates and delivers amenities to the public. Such amenities include, but are not limited to welfare, infrastructure, security, social justice, education, health care and a means of regulating or deregulating the economy (Okoduwa 2007). Individuals who work in government departments and agencies are known as public servants.
During the colonial administration in Nigeria, bureaucrats were concerned with the maintenance of colonial law and order and collection of taxes and levies. As indicated earlier, the public sector in Nigeria is still fairly new, the civil service was regionalized in 1954, in consert with the requirements of a federal system. These regional civil services were more effective than the federal civil service even after independence, partly because of ethnicity.
Nigeria has a rich ethnic background with over two hundred and fifty ethnic groups. As a result, groups with the same ethnic background were able to have a viable and efficient civil service sector. The western regional civil service in Nigeria was deemed one of the best and a model to be emulated across Anglophone Africa, it was likened to the British civil service and was very efficient and effective in the delivery of services to the public (Olowu 2001). At independence, the role of the civil service changed and was centered on assisting the new government to plan and accelerate the pace of Nigeria’s socioeconomic development. However the nationalization of

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the civil service experienced some difficulties in becoming efficient and effective, due to the lack of a homogenous identity unlike the regional civil service (Okotoni 2001).
From the time of independence till the military takeover, there were some issues in the administration. After the military takeover of the government, the civil service became more dominant in the public policy process. The civil service rose to the challenge of the political change the country was experiencing and the top civil servants assumed political responsibilities.
These bureaucrats were responsible for policy formulation and implementation, while the military were preoccupied more with the civil war and managing coup d’états. The civil service was praised for being effective in ensuring a speedy recovery after the civil war, and in transforming the country into the new era of economic prosperity after the discovery of oil
(Okotoni 2001). This era also witnessed the emergence of higher level of civil servants, who were known as Super Permanent Secretaries. They were influential and had bureaucratic power to make policy decisions.
This lasted for a couple of years but in the last 1970s, the authority and power of the civil service started declining. One of the major reasons for the decline of the public service was the corruption between political officials and civil servant was the high level of corruption leading to a massive dismissal of civil servants. Also, some of the positions in the civil service political neutrality and a merit system, but it resulted in ethnic favoritism and corruption (Olowu 2001).
The nationalization of the civil service has not been successful over the years because the reforms enacted to enhance transformation and growth to increase efficiency and effectiveness of the service has been unsuccessful. A host of factors have been attributed to the failure of the civil service in nationalizing and properly working at an efficient pace in the delivery of public services. These reforms include; transitioning of government from a number of regime changes

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that had negatively affected the efficiency and the effectiveness of government, and the lack of merit in the hiring and promotion of civil servants who are hired based on political affiliations, which lead to limited accountability to the public (Suleiman 2009).
In 1999, the Nigerian constitution gave a provision for a mandatory federal and state public service sector. The sector comprises of the civil service and the public bureaucracy. The civil service is made up of the line ministries and extra-ministrial agencies. The public bureaucracy is the expanded public service which includes services of the state and national assemblies, the judicial branch, the security agencies (army, air force police and navy), paramilitary services (immigration, prisons), parastatals and agencies including social services, commercially oriented agencies, regulatory agencies, and educational institutions (Suleiman
2009). The civil service employees millions of government officials whose main goal is to implement government programs and policies. In 2003, a reform of the public sector was introduced to change the structure and procedures of the sector focusing on the allowance and salaries of civil servants. Unfortunately, this reform did not result in the change that was anticipated. The civil service is important as it coordinates the federal ministries, advises political officials, formulates and implements government’s policies, gathers and supplies data for policy makers, ensures continuity of services and public relations services. All these roles are important to the smooth running of any administration. The civil servants are responsible not only for preserving these properties but for ensuring the proper and effective utilization of them. Thus, the bureaucracy can make or mar any administration. The public bureaucracy is entrusted with the public property, either tangible or intangible.

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The Nigerian public sector is experiencing inefficiencies in performing its roles for a number of reasons. Thus, it is essential that these issues are addressed to make sure that government officials are working under the structure that promotes efficiency, equity and effectiveness in public service delivery. Before addressing the issues affecting civil service in
Nigeria, it is important to look at the different forms of corruption in the public sector.

Forms of Corruption in the Public Sector
There are numerous types of corruption but this study is concerned with bureaucratic corruption which occurs in the public sector or in the execution of policies. This is also known as street level corruption, where bureaucrats use their discretion in the implementation of policies that have been given to them by lawmakers (Dike 2008). As earlier discussed, bureaucratic discretion can lead to corruption if not properly administered, because public officials can decide to treat certain individuals unfairly.
Bureaucratic corruption can be manifested in a variety of ways. Bribery is the payment
(in money or kind) that is taken or given in a transaction (Dike 2008). In the public sector, bribery is prevalent in the execution of government services such as, lower taxes, licenses, and legal outcomes. Bribes can influence the government's choice in contracting, in the allocation of government benefits, such as subsidies to private companies or individuals and access to pensions or unemployment insurance. Bribes can vary in size, type, and how much the public official will benefit from such a transaction (Moseley 1999).
Another type of bureaucratic corruption is known as grand corruption which involves international business transactions, and bureaucrats and politicians are often accomplices to such a deal. Petty corruption is when individuals seek a license or a service from the government.

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Even though, this might seem less influential on the country, petty corruption can negatively impact Nigeria because a pooled group of individuals can retain bribes in an elaborate sharing arrangement. This can limit the resources that are available to all citizens in the country. Most of the time, people involved in grand corruption are the ones that make media headlines, although when analyzed, the total cost of petty corruption based on economical and political distortions is of even greater cost than that of grand corruption (Moseley 1999).
Furthermore, public sector fraud is also another type of bureaucratic corruption where individuals seek to take advantage of government grants and services for their personal gain, this type of fraud involves stealing public funds, which affects all taxpayers. Public officials who partake in such schemes exploit public funds and hinder the delivery of appropriate goods and services to citizens (Moseley 1999). Also, bureaucratic embezzlement is when public officials steal resources from the public institution where they are employed. In Nigeria, the embezzlement of public funds is one of the most common ways in which individuals accumulate national wealth which can be attributed to the lack of strict regulatory systems in the country.
Likewise, public sector extortion is a type of bureaucratic corruption that deals with the extraction of public funds and other resources by coercion, violence of the use of force, the police and custom officials usually use this means to collect money from civilians (Moseley
1999). Lastly, bureaucrats often use favoritism as a tool of power abuse, this occurs when there is a highly biased mechanism in the distribution of state resources. In Nigeria, some public officials see this as a means to favor their friends, family and people of their own ethnic group. A form of favoritism that is widely common in Nigeria is nepotism, which is an abuse of power, where public officials offer preferential treatment to their kinfolk and family members. These

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same public officials can also exempt their relatives from following certain laws or regulations or through the biased allocation of resources (Moseley 1999).

History of Corruption in the Public Sector
Corruption in the public sector can be traced all the way back to colonial times in
Nigeria. The British colonized the country using both direct and indirect rule, employing local officials as administrators to oversee the newly colonized territories in different parts of Nigeria.
Most of these administrators were not indigenous to the particular region they controlled but some used this new found power and authority for their personal gains. They abused and misused the power in hopes of gaining more influence and wealth from their positions (Owolabi 2007).
After independence from the British, the first elected politicians and their civil servants were also characterized as being corrupt. During the election periods, votes were manipulated and some political candidates hired thugs to intimidate and sometimes eliminate their political opponents.
These corrupt public officials who had attained power wanted to use it to acquire more influence and authority for their own selfish interests. The public interest was not a priority to these administrators (Owolabi 2007).
The military took over the control of government in 1966 citing the corruption of public officials as the main reason, yet the political system became worse afterwards. Each military regime proved to be more corrupt than the previous ones thus leading to the proliferation of corruption. Each military government was known for its abuse of power, lack of transparency and accountability. Since the government were being controlled by the military, there was no system of checks and balances. The only type of oppositions that occurred during the military regimes were coup d’états, which led to complete overthrow of the head of state and cabinet

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officials, and resulted in a new head of state being instated. Citizens were not allowed to question the authority of military officials and whoever opposed to the government was either imprisoned or killed. This system created a culture of corruption in government where public officials did not need to be accountable for their actions and the citizens could not demand accountability
(Owolabi 2007).
Nigeria became democratic in 1999 and the then President elect, President Olusegun
Obasanjo, wanted to create a new culture of governance, and established new agencies and initiated reforms in the public sector that could put an end to corrupt practices by government officials. Although President Obasanjo initiated these new reforms and agencies in the hopes of improving the structure of the civil service, yet to some extent, these changes did result in some improvements in the sector. There are still some changes that need to be done to ensure that the public service is accountable to the public, by implementing stricter rules and regulations.
Ensuring that civil servants are held to a standard that will allow them to be responsive to the public in an efficient, equitable and effective way is vital to the economic growth of the country.
Furthermore, there needs to be accountability in the public sector because it helps to ensure that all actions and decisions taken by public officials are subject to scrutiny and transparency. Accountability is one of the fundamental prerequisites for preventing the abuse of power and for ensuring that power is directed towards the achievement of efficiency, effectiveness, and transparency. By guaranteeing that all government agencies are accountable, they will be able to meet their stated purposes and goals, and are also more responsive to the needs of the people. Moreover, if government officials are responsive to the needs of the people, public agencies will become more transparent so that citizens can monitor their activities, thus making it less likely for public officials to abuse their positions. Also, making agencies to be

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more transparent ensures that they are held to a standard. Once defaulters are punished, it will be difficult for public officials to serve their own self purpose (Dike 2002).

Methodology
This study uses a qualitative research design to gain insight into the Nigerian public service. It explores the depth, richness, and complexity inherent in the sector, by tracing the political history of the country, and the need of having an accountable public sector in the delivery of public goods and services to the citizens. Furthermore, by having an accountable public sector, the government is able to gain the trust of its citizens while performing at its optimum potential. In other to accomplish the purpose of this study as earlier stated, the analysis begins by examining the history of corruption in Nigeria, starting from the colonial period to post-colonial era including democratic and military regimes and up to the new democratic period. It further discusses how these periods have impacted the implied culture of corruption in the public sector.
Since the study explores some of the main causes of corruption in the public sector, it is necessary to look at these causes in order to determine appropriate policy recommendations.
Some of the causes examined include how inequality in the distribution of wealth influences the need for public officials to be corrupt. Nigeria, like many developing countries, is struggling with the social equity issue and public officials who want to be among the higher income class think that the only way to achieve such an ambition will be to embezzle government funds.
Another possible cause that influences public officials to embezzle funds is the poor reward system in the civil service sector, most employees do not feel they are being rewarded based on how much work they put into the service and the only way to reward themselves is to take away

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from the system that refuses to compensate them. Other factors that influence public officials, need to indulge in corruptible acts will be further examined in the study. The data collected in each of these areas will help in assessing the level of corruption and the urgent need for a change in the public service. In answering questions raised in the case study, it is necessary to use a variety of secondary data ranging from journal articles, newspapers and books. To improve on the reliability and validity of the study, multiple sources were used to minimize the risk of error.

Causes of Corruption in the Public Sector
Corruption is a detrimental force that hinders democracy and represses individuals in many countries throughout the world. Nigeria is ranked as one of the world’s most corrupt countries, according to Transparency International’s Corrupt Practices Index. Corruption is caused by many factors including lack of accountability among public servants, inequality in the distribution of resources, promotion of ethnicity and lack of nationalism, and lastly, weakness of governmental enforcement agencies. These factors have contributed to existing culture of corruption in Nigeria. This study analyzes each of these contributing aspects in detail.

Lack of Accountability
A lack of accountability costs any government money due to lax leadership, employee theft and inefficiency in the execution of job duties. In Nigeria, the public sector is not accountable to the people, it seems like there is a divide between what actually goes on in government and what is being reported to the citizens. There is no transparent system where the public is allowed to participate in policy formation and have a say in how these policies should be implemented. Nigeria has a large amount of natural resources but lacks proper accountability

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measures. In part this could be due to a lack of connective infrastructure like roads, Internet access and electricity which service delivery and social accountability systems depend on. This lack of infrastructure is caused by the mismanagement of resources by government officials, and if these officials are made to be accountable to the citizens, there will be a good response to the delivery of services (Okoye 2005).

Inequality in the distribution of resources
Nigeria has substantial natural resources to accommodate its expanding population but only a few people in the country has access to the money generated from the resources. Nigeria ranks 48 with 43.7 on the distribution of family income, the index measures the degree of inequality in the distribution of family income in a country. The index is calculated from the
Lorenz curve, where cumulative family income is plotted against the number of families arranged from the poorest to the richest (CIA Factbook 2013). Furthermore, 70 percent of the citizens are living below poverty line amidst the massive wealth in the country. As a result, when citizens get government jobs they try to amass as much wealth as they can while in their positions. This can be avoided if employees are paid enough to ensure that they will not try to defraud the government because they are underpaid. The Constitution of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria makes allowance for employees, in that they should have a reasonable living minimum wage. In Section 16(2)d, it states that:
The state shall direct its policy to ensure that suitable and adequate shelter, suitable and adequate food, reasonable national minimum living wage, old age care and pensions, and unemployment, sick benefits and welfare of the disabled are provided for all citizens (Shilgba
2010).

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The constitution makes provisions for its citizens but the politicians are not following through. The citizens are not being supported through their salaries, the current minimum wage is 18,000 naira a month, which is about $130, this is hardly enough to sustain an individual for a month talk less a family (Shilgba 2010). As a result, public officials tend to find alternate means of raising income to be able to take care of their families. Although this is not an excuse for public officials to be corrupt, it hardly gives them an opportunity to remain honest if they can barely survive on the salary they are receiving.

Promotion of Ethnicity and a lack of Nationalism
Societies like Nigeria that are multi-ethnic are more likely to fall prey to corruption as a result of failure to manage ethnic conflict in a ways that are fair to everyone. Before the amalgamation of Nigeria in 1914 by Lord Lugard, the citizens of present day Nigeria were divided into different ethnic groups with existing customs, laws and leadership (CIA Factbook
2013). After the amalgamation, people from different ethnic groups were tossed together to form a single nation which caused ethnic tensions. Nigerians identify themselves along the lines of their ethnicity more so than their nationality resulting in conflict and a lack of nationalism. There are a large number of qualified applicants (Shilgba 2010).
Consequently, citizens are more concerned with improving their regions and states, and investing more in these places than in the country as a whole. As a result, there are a lot of underdevelopments in certain parts of the country because public officials are more concerned with diverting resources to their families, relatives and people in their state of origin.

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Lax Social and Governmental Enforcement Agencies
One of the causes of corruption is the lack of strong government agencies to enforce laws and rules as sternly as they need to. This creates an opportunity for public officials to embezzle funds without fear of repercussion or punishment. Nigeria is degenerating into a society without a discernible legalistic framework for law enforcement agencies or judicial system. In Nigeria, anyone that is favored in political patronage can basically get away with most crimes, and some of these crimes involve money laundering, uncontrollable theft of government money and other illegal crimes (Omotoye 2011).
Subsequently, it is important to note that people charged with persecuting these criminals are, in fact, the actual perpetrators. The Nigerian Police Force was ranked the nation’s most corrupt public institution (Omotoye 2011). In 2006, the Inspector General of the police was convicted on eight charges of theft involving more than $100 million of public money while in office. When he was convicted, he spent only six months in prison. This example creates a lack of public trust in the government and its enforcement agencies. When the people set up to persecute criminals are criminals themselves, could there be any possible hope for the country?
Enforcement agencies need to be equipped to enforce laws and be given the authority to persecute anybody regardless of his or her position. There should also be an audit of the enforcement agencies to expose all the bad eggs that are corrupt, thus forcing a change to occur in these agencies and leaving the good guys in charge. If these agencies are giving the authority to persecute anymore, it will build public trust in government and also serve as a deterrent to corrupt public officials, that there are, in fact, consequences to their actions.

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Lack of a Proper Taxing System
Furthermore, there is a lack of an effective taxing system in the country. This makes it difficult to track down people’s financial activities and creates a breeding ground for corruption.
Public officials do not file taxes so it is hard to trace their financial activities and how much they are actually making. It is the duty of politicians to make public officials accountable by implementing laws that will enhance an appropriate and effective tax system where people are made to explain their sources of income, through an end-of-the-year income tax filing. This will allow the audit departments to know how much these public officials are making and check for discrepancies (Okoye 2005).

Ineffective Policies that enhance Corruption
Moreover, public officials are discretionally implementing certain policies to allow them divert public funds into their personal accounts. For example, there was a ban on the importation of used cars over five years of manufacture. This policy helped in breeding corruption among public officials because car business owners were unable to import cars into the countries legally, so they resorted to bribing public officials to enable them import these cars. If this policy on the ban of used cars is not reviewed and strict guidelines implemented to avoid corruption, it could negatively affect the economy. Consequently, this policy is also going to negatively affect those employed in this line of business, who do not want to give out bribes, they will run out of business, thereby increasing the number of citizens already living in poverty (Okoye 2005). Such a policy has so many negative effects that can lead to corruption if not properly planned out. For instance, it can result in the loss of state tax revenue and a reduction in importations of cars into the country, and diversion of this business to other neighboring countries, thus causing Nigeria to

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lose revenue. In essence, lack of proper planning in the implementation can be a breeding ground for corruption and hurt the country economically (Okoye 2005).

Consequence of Public Sector Corruption in Nigeria
Corruption has a negative effect on the social, political, environmental and economic development of a country. It is necessary to tackle these effects before it becomes too much for the nation to amend, which could have dire consequence on its citizens.

For illustrative

purposes, two consequences of corruption are discussed in this section.
In terms of the economy, corruption results in a reduction in public spending as public funds are being diverted to the personal accounts of some public officials. Consequently, government spending on goods and service is reduced which has a negative effect on the economy. Public officials often allocate government spending towards big expenditures. Big and difficult to manage projects like the construction of airports and highways allow some bureaucrats access to easily defraud the government because it is hard to keep account of how much funds are going into the projects (Okoye 2005).
Furthermore, as was earlier discussed, corruption leads to poverty and income inequalities which negatively influence government officials to engage in corruptible acts so they can amass as much wealth while in their position. Development projects are often made unnecessarily complex and sometimes take years to accomplish in Nigeria so that government officials can divert resources into their own personal accounts. The new national stadium in
Abuja cost the government millions of naira. It is hard to keep account of how much was actually spent (Okoye 2005). Corruption may lead to people losing their lives because of wasteful use of government money that could be channeled into useful expenditures. Projects like hospitals,

24

dams and irrigation are among the services government tries to provide to citizens but the mismanagement and embezzlement of funds by government officials reduces the funds that would have been allocated to these government services. Therefore, government hospitals are illequipped to treat patients, hospital buildings are not up to standards, and there is a lack of necessary medical equipments. This is not because the country cannot fund these expenditures but because government officials are diverting the money reserved for these projects into their own personal accounts, thus causing citizens to suffer as a result (Okoye 2005).
Moreover, public servants are non-elected officials within a government that implements rules, laws, ideas, and functions of their agency. In essence, government officials are the linkage between what government decides to do and how it is being implemented, and public servants are the middlemen. Therefore, if public servants are considered corrupt, this will influence the public perception that the government is corrupt. Politicians will be blamed for not taking a strong stance on corruption, and hence seen as having a weak administration. Citizens hold elected officials accountable for the policies they make and if these policies are being implemented incorrectly, the politicians are blamed. Corrupt public officials flourish in a society where there is a lack of proper governance, a failure in implementation of democratic values and prevalence of poor leadership. It is important that politicians implement proper measures to ensure that the public confidence does not waver because of corrupt public servants. It should be seen that the government is doing its best to ensure that corruption is reduced in the public sector. When it seems that politicians are not living up to their promises, which might be as a result of poor implementation by government officials, it can lead to loss of confidence by the people. 25

Regarding the environment, corruption has a negative impact due to the actions of public officials. For example, in a corrupt society, there are evidence of ravages and degradations on infrastructures and communities as a result of the exploitation of resources. In Nigeria, the citizens of the Niger Delta area have experienced negative environment impact since the discovery of oil in their region. These conditions occurred because of the improper drilling of oil and not adhering to the environment policies of the area. This has raised concerns over the health of the people living in the region but the owners of these oil companies bribe some public administrators to allow them to drill without properly implementing the necessary measures to protect the citizens. Although there have been some compensations, the corruption of public servants make it almost impossible for the victims to receive this money and the community is left with nothing to protect their health or their land (Okoye 2005).
Another consequence of corruption is the poor state of government buildings and roads in the country. Most of the infrastructures are not built up to standard and the roads are not constructed correctly. Moreover, the maintenance of these government structures are not up to par and this lack of maintenance is a breeding ground for accidents. This lack of proper construction and maintenance is not as a result of inadequate funds but rather it is due to poor allocation and management of the projects. Public officials usually loot government funds for their own personal gain without regard to the consequences.

Case Studies
This paper uses an exploratory case study to analyze examples of corruption in the public sector. Since 1999, it is said that about 8 trillion naira of government funds were embezzled or alleged to have been embezzled and diverted into private accounts of public officials. On the

26

basis of investigations done by the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission, this analysis now explores different ways in which the public servants have tried to defraud the government.

Payroll Scheme
In the Nigerian public sector, payroll scams occur when agencies report ghost employees and collect salaries on behalf of them. The Economic and Financial Crimes Commission investigates crimes on payroll scams. This scam is not just done at the federal level, because some states are experiencing same problem of ghost employees on their payroll. Billions of naira are lost monthly to salary fraudsters and there are over 45,000 unaccountable workers on the federal payroll alone, and government is spending over N100bn annually (Mefor 2013). Payroll scams often go uninvestigated unless there is a huge scandal that brings it to light. Generally, governments try to make it hard for such a scam to occur by putting security measures between them and the banks. In Nigeria, the public sector and the banks have a system that certifies that all employees are fully documented. The banks make sure that each government employee has his/her own passports, fingerprints and signature, reference letters, and is given a personal banker that handles matters involving the account. It is thus strange with all these security measures that fraudulent activities still happen (Mefor 2013).
Two examples of payroll scams are discussed here. The first example was a case involving a Federal Research Institute. This agency was reporting a large number of employees who turned out to be mostly ghost workers, and it even listed existing staff members multiple times. The list of employees included dead, retired and fired employees and the government was paying for this scam. The federal government lost about N80 million in one year alone through this fraudulent process (Ribadu 2007)

27

The second example of a payroll scam that caused a media uproar in Nigeria is the case of a newborn baby placed under the state government payroll in Zamfara. The baby was earning about $150 a month, which was collected for over two years. The employee listed as a month old in government records was still allowed to collect a monthly salary by the child's father even before the baby was actually conceived. Records on the state’s payroll showed that the baby had a diploma despite being listed as a newborn (Ibukun 2011). Cases like this are not as rare as one could think, names and ages that seem ridiculous are logged on as employees. These lists are rarely audited making it easy for public officials to get away with this crime. As earlier mentioned, funds for services are misused and services are either poor or not available. Nigerians are left with little or no services from their government because of the diversion of the money.

Tour Allowance Scheme
Some public officials defraud the government through the use of tour allowance scams.
These officials collect money for a government endorsed trip which was never attended. In some instances, the employee may actually attend the trip and request for more money than was spent.
Government gives these privileges to its employees to make sure they are able to perform their job duties, but they end up abusing these rights by stealing from the government to put in their own personal accounts (Ribadu 2007).
The EFCC is currently investigating a federal agency for reporting false travel claims to defraud the government. These employees would fill tour allowance forms and collect money for trips they never embarked on. The agency employees including the branch manager collected money worth 16 million naira within the span of two years. An agency head is now being investigated for taking unofficial trips under the guise of attending government meeting. This

28

individual flew out every weekend claiming to be going on an official government assignment, and claimed the costs of flight and tour allowances but was later found to have made up the trips
(Ribadu 2007). Since tour allowance is another way in which public officials defraud the government, it is necessary that an audit department pays close attention to these trips. The audit department should request for a proof of any trip taken and reimburse employees after they provide evidence of their travel.

Fraud Charges
Corruption, especially in the public sector and economic crimes, including money laundering are of importance to Nigeria because of the negative image it is creating for the country. It is also causing harm to the economy because if investors perceive that the government is corrupt, they will move their businesses to other countries. Anti-Corruption and Transparency
Units have been established in various government ministries and agencies to monitor and report corrupt tendencies and appropriate laws have been enacted. It seems that these agencies are not as effective as both the government and citizens would hope. The banking sector is at the forefront of these crimes because these funds usually go through the banks. It is important that the anti-corruption agencies focus their attentions on banks to audit any transactions perceived as inappropriate. Consequently, in trying to rid the public sector of corrupt bureaucrats, it is important for a bank to also have an internal audit system that tracks its employees, to ensure they are not engaging in fraudulent activities. For example, a case was brought to the attention of the EFCC involving bank officials who were exploiting citizens of their money. These bank employees were exploiting herdsmen and farmers under the pretext that they will to benefit from an

29

agricultural grant. The farmers and herdsmen complained that throughout the process, they never set foot inside the bank to fill or sign documents, instead they were attended to under a tree near the bank (Mohammed 2012).
Furthermore, the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission is currently investigating bank officials who were involved in the mismanagement of pension funds. Several bank officials are being indicted for opening bank accounts and allowing these accounts to receive money from fraudulent transactions orchestrated by the Office of the Head of Service of the Federation. The funds in the accounts came from fraudulent activities, and to transfer such a large sum of money into any bank will involve the help of bank officials. Although it would be difficult for the
Commission to prosecute banks, it has decided that all the bank employees involved will face trial for looting the pension funds (Soriwei 2012). The banking industry has to be revamped and its employees retrained to spot fraudulent activities and report them to their superiors.

Public Sector Accountability
The values of public administrators include public service, efficiency, effectiveness, providing equity and promoting economic growth. It is the duty of bureaucrats to achieve all these values in order to promote accountability in their positions. Public sector accountability means that government and its employees are accountable and their activities are open to the public. In essence, records of government activities should be open to the people unless it involves security of the country. Accountability can be defined as a social relationship which requires an individual is obligated to explain and justify every action to somebody else (Bovens
2007).

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Accountability is often used synonymously with words like responsibility, answerability, blame-worthiness and liability, words commonly associated with the expectation of account giving. Accountability is an aspect of governance and has been used in discussions relating to problems in the public sector (Bovens 2007). It can be conceptualized as being answerable or responsible for one’s actions and/or inactions, and conduct in office or position. In the public sector, accountability can be defined as the process of making elected and non-elected officials liable to the citizens who elected or appointed them for their actions while in office. Likewise, accountability connotes the state of being liable and requires a specified person or group of people to report and justify his/her actions in relations to specific matters or assigned duties
(Bovens 2007).
Furthermore, accountability focuses on the sanctions or procedures by which public officials can be held to account for their actions. There is a link between accountability, bureaucracy and democracy; accountability assures that bureaucrats are accountable for their job performances to both the people and their superiors. Bureaucrats are made accountable for their actions through the executive, legislative and judicial controls. In Nigeria, there is a new agency known as the
Budget Monitoring and Price Intelligence Unit, whose main objectives include promoting transparency in government financial transactions and establishing open and competitive bidding process for government contracts. It was created during Olusegeun Obasanjo’s administration.
Another agency that was set up during Obasanjo’s administration is the Independent Corrupt
Practices and Other Related Offences Commission (ICPC) as the pivot for Nigeria’s fight against corruption. This agency receives complaints, investigates and prosecutes offenders. It also educates and enlightens the public about corruption and how public officials can avoid engaging in corruptible acts while performing their job duties (Obasanjo 2003).

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Importance of Accountability in the Public Sector
Accountability is important in the public sector because both elected and non-elected officials need to show the public that they are performing their responsibilities in the best possible way and using the resources provided them effectively and efficiently. In the public sector, accountability means that all government officials must answer to the citizens and justify the source and utilization of public resources in their disposal. It is imperative that citizens have access to information either facts or figures that allow them to make decisions, thereby encouraging citizen participation in government. Democracy makes it permissible for citizens to hold government officials accountable and also to monitor and control government conduct, which prevents the development of concentration of power within a particular office. It encourages the learning capacity and effectiveness of public administrators (Olu-Adeyemi and
Obamuyi 2010).
Bureaucracy has a hierarchy and a system of checks and balances that prevents corruption and abuse of office because no one position has absolute power. It is necessary for
Nigeria to have a sense of accountability because a newly democratic government requires strong institutions and structures to support the democratic process. The solution to an overbearing or corrupt government is to have an institution that supports checks and balances like an independent judicial power or an audit department that watches over agencies. These institutions should be given authority to request that an account be rendered over any particular aspect of activity on which the government has influence and control. It is necessary to have a direct and explicit accountability relationship between public agencies and clients, citizens and civil society, and the media (Olu-Adeyemi and Obamuyi 2010).

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Good governance occurs jointly with accountability, which means that both government officials and bureaucrats are efficient and accountable. It ensures that there is an open government that relies on bureaucratic competence in designing and implementing appropriate policies to manage the public sector. Good governance requires an independent judicial system that upholds the law and resolves disputes arising in a largely free market economy. In terms of bureaucracy, good governance and accountability require bureaucrats to be responsible for their actions while performing their jobs (Olu-Adeyemi and Obamuyi 2010).
It is essential that in the promotion of good governance there should be free access to information. This means that information about the economic conditions, budgets, markets and government intentions are reliable and easily accessible to all. By doing this, the government is able to enhance accountability, limit corruption and stimulate consultative processes between government and private interests over policy development (Olu-Adeyemi and Obamuyi 2010).
Accountability also promotes good and ethnical government which is important for gaining public trust. The Nigerian public has grown accustomed to not trusting the government because of the level of corruption that both the politicians and the public servants partake in on a daily basis. It is important for government to regain the trust of its citizens. Accountability will also influence investors to invest in the country, if it is perceived that the government is trustworthy and accountable to the people. Both foreign and domestic investors will have full faith that their investments will not be put on hold to bribe but will be placed in a fertile economy to grow. By doing this, Nigeria will be recognized as a part of the global economy for better economic opportunities (Omotayo 2011).

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Recommendations for the Public Sector
It is important to reform the public sector. Reforming the sector entails a political redesigning of the relationship between bureaucrats and other members of the society or within the bureaucracy itself. Bureaucratic reform seeks to better the government, it has a moral content for creating a better system by removing faults and imperfections in public agencies. It is done to change the status quo and make it more efficient and effective in the delivery of public services to the people.

Audit Department
To accomplish bureaucratic reform, it is imperative that public officials are accountable, thus having an audit department in every government office is essential. This will discourage the abuse of public privileges by political officials and bureaucrats, because the audit department will ensure that career of accounting officers are not at the mercy of political officials. To legitimize this internal audit system, external auditors should be appointed by government agencies to ensure that accountability is enforced in the internal accounting system. This will help in validating and safeguarding the judgments and actions of accounting officers and internal auditors. Thus, the fear that a politician could fire an honest accounting officer will be limited because an outside agency will collaborate with the office and reveal the real facts behind the actions of accounting officers and political appointees.

Payroll
Public officials in Nigeria are paid less than their counterparts in the private sector. The minimum wage in the public sector is hardly enough to take care of an employee, and not enough

34

to take care of a family. The government minimum wage does not motivate any employee to do his/her job efficiently and honestly. Although poor pay is not an excuse for public officials to indulge in corruptible acts, it does not offer an incentive for bureaucrats to be productive in their jobs. It is necessary for the government to work on increasing the minimum wage to ensure that employees can survive on their new compensation structure and be motivated to work well for the public interest. One way the government can raise revenue to increase the pay of its public employees is to curb the number of people who are claiming salaries but are not employed by the state. Another way to solve this problem would be to create an information system that can manage and account for all the employees that work in the public sector. By implementing a computerized payroll system to track all employees, government will be able to reduce the amount of fraud that goes on in payroll scams involving ghost employees.

Benefits
It is important to have benefits for government officials, even if the salary is not comparable to the private sector. Government agencies can offer non-monetary benefits like flex-time, some time off, vacation hours, discounts to stores, retirement matching, mentoring programs, tuition assistance, and child-care. Although non-monetary benefits are encouraged, the monetization of benefits is a good mechanism to reduce corruption. It will help to increase retention among employees by encouraging them to be productive in the performance of their jobs. Furthermore, another way to increase motivation in the workforce and curb corruption would be to have a reliable pension plan for public officials. Doing this will help to ensure that

35

employees are confident in their future after retirement from the public sector and increase productivity. Having a good pension plan will limit the excuse of employees trying to steal government money to ensure a good economic security for their future.

Merit System
The government needs to institute a competency driven and incentive/sanction-based procedure for hiring, promoting, training, rotating and firing public officials to create a new public sector culture. By institutionalizing a merit system, both nepotism and favoritism in the public sector will be eliminated. Employees are hired based on their qualifications rather than who they know. It will promote efficiency in government and eliminate the abuse of power and the feeling for dormancy in the public sector.

Leadership
In other to reduce corruption and increase accountability in government, it is important for the leaders in the public sector to lead by example, and display good work ethic and fairness when it comes to dealing with the staff. It is imperative that there be training seminars for both supervisors and employees on how to efficiently perform their jobs. The agency heads should be held accountable for their actions but should be given managerial discretion when it comes to dealing with employees.
Furthermore, policy guidelines in the agencies should be clearly specified so that all employees are knowledgeable about their job duties and what is expected of them as state employees. There also needs to be equity among all employees, and supervisors need to make

36

sure that they are not practicing favoritism but are rewarding their employees on the basis of good performance.

Ethics Code
A code of work ethics must be put in place, publicized and strictly enforced. Such a code will promote accountability, diligence and responsibility in the execution of duties. Supervisors must ensure that socialization mechanisms like groupthink do not negatively affect employees and push them into partaking in corrupt practices through group pressure. It is necessary for leaders to praise upright and truthful employees and reward excellence by promoting a culture of honesty and integrity. A mechanism should be put in place to protect whistle blowers so as to deter corrupt officials from retaliating against employees especially those in lower positions. It is important that all deserving employees be rewarded and praised in the presence of their peers so as to encourage them to strive for excellence.

Stronger Enforcements of Laws
There should to be an emphasis on discipline in all agencies in the public sector. That is, a culture of discipline where employees understand that if they engage in corruption, they will be punished. Currently, officers perceive the disciplinary system as ineffectual. But by creating a new system of discipline, the code of ethics will change and employees will desist from partaking in corruptible acts. Effective supervision, discipline, and clear accountability of public officials through constant monitoring of employee behavior will reduce the spread of corrupt practices, since punishment given out to corrupt officials will serve as a warning to others. It is important to have an effective disciplinary plan to ensure that the rules of enforcement are

37

clearly stated. It is also crucial to publicize such punishments so that all public employees and citizens can bear witness with the hopes that such public humiliation would serve as a deterrent to future accomplices.

Anti-Corruption Agencies
There needs to be a reform of the anti-corruption agencies in Nigeria. These agencies should be given the authority to go after anybody that is suspected of being corrupt without fear or favor. The agencies should be accountable to the public while an independent agency that can audit them to ascertain that they are doing proper investigations and conducting themselves ethically as created. These agencies need to be creating a broad-based awareness of the provisions of the Corrupt Practices and Other Related Offences Act of 2000 to all public officials, which criminalizes and proscribes the offences of bribery, gratification, illegal use of position for personal advantage.

Conclusion
This analysis calls for a reform of the public service to increase accountability in government agencies as a way of curbing corruption. It is hopeful that if the reform measures suggested in this paper are implemented, there will be some reductions in the level of corruption in the public sector. This will make the public sector to be more efficient and effective in the execution of its job duties and become more responsive to the needs of its citizens.
Given the central role played by the civil service in Nigeria, it is essential that public goods and services should be evenly distributed to all citizens. A corrupt bureaucracy will lead to a decrease in the quality of goods and services being provided by the government, which will increase public cynicism. Generally, it is important to implement accountability measures as a
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central concept for good governance. Accountability requires that elected and unelected officials in government account for their performance to the public or to their duly elected representatives. Once these accountability measures are implemented, public officials will be under the scrutiny of the public and will be less likely to engage in corruptible acts.

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