...PAPER SERIES THE DYNAMICS OF EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT FOR BLACKS, HISPANICS, AND WHITES Stephen V. Cameron James J. Heckman Working Paper 7249 http://www.nber.org/papers/w7249 NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH 1050 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, MA 02138 July 1999 We thank Stephanie Aaronson, Joseph Altonji, Shubaum Chauduri, Terri Devine, Tom Kane, and Christopher Taber for valuable comments. We thank Marvin Kosters for valuable comments and for making this paper possible. The first draft of this paper was presented at an NBER conference on higher education at Cambridge, MA in April 1992. It was also presented at a Public Economics workshop at the University of Chicago (May 1992), sponsored by J. Hotz, at the Institute of Research on Poverty (Wisconsin), June 1997, and at Cornell University, April 1997. This work was supported by the American Bar Foundation and by NSF-SBR-93-21-048, NSF 97-09-893, and by NICHD:R01-HD32058-01A1; NICHD:R01-34598-03; NIH:R01-HD34958-01; NIH:R01-HD32058-03, and by grants from the Mellon Foundation and the Spencer Foundations. The views expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect those of the National Bureau of Economic Research. © 1999 by Stephen V. Cameron and James J. Heckman. All rights reserved. Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit, including © notice, is given to the source. The Dynamics of Educational Attainment for Blacks, Hispanics, and Whites ...
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...Health Care Disparities Latanya Breeden Capella University Health Care Disparities America benefits when everyone has the opportunity to live a long, healthy and productive life, yet health disparities persist. A health disparity is a difference in health outcomes across subgroups of the population, often linked to social, economic, or environmental disadvantages (less access to good jobs, unsafe neighborhoods, and lack of affordable transportation options). Health disparities adversely affect groups of people who have systematically experienced greater obstacles to health on the basis of their racial or ethnic group, religion, socioeconomic status, gender, age, mental health, cognitive, sensory, or physical disability, sexual orientation or gender identity, geographic location, or other characteristics historically linked to discrimination or exclusion. The issues that involved in education and lifestyle choice disparities are the socioeconomic circumstances of persons and the places where they live and work strongly influence their health. In the United States, as elsewhere, the risk for mortality, morbidity, unhealthy behaviors, reduced access to health care, and poor quality of care increases with decreasing socioeconomic circumstances. This association is continuous and graded across a population and cumulative over the life course. Educational attainment and family or household income are two indicators used commonly to assess the influence...
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...non-income dimensions Achin Chakraborty Institute of Development Studies Kolkata 1, Reformatory Street, 5th Floor Calcutta University Alipore Campus Kolkata 700 027 India achinchak@rediffmail.com Abstract There are two basic approaches to measuring inequality in non-income dimensions. One views inequality as variation of an outcome indicator across individuals and the other views inequality as essentially disparities across socioeconomic groups. While the latter view now dominates the inequality measurement in health, measurement of education inequalities has so far taken the first view. In this paper, we have argued the importance of reckoning inequality in socio-economic group terms and advocated use of an ‘education concentration index’ exactly in the same way as the health concentration index measures socio-economic inequalities in health. The index has been applied to the Indian data to reckon two kinds of inequalities in educational attainment (years of education) – one across economic classes and the other across socially identified groups such as the Scheduled Tribes, Scheduled Castes and others. We find a strong correlation between the two types of inequalities across the states of India. We also find, as one would expect, that the inequality index values are negatively correlated with the average years of education. However, in actual policy context, analysis of the outliers might be more illuminating than...
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...potential. Given its value to today’s society, there has since been a leap forward in research to identify why the educational system still remains in a state of hiatus (Rumberger & Lim, 2008). The unfortunate reality of today’s economic climate for example, has been recognised to cause a divide in academic success between socio-economically disadvantaged children, from those with highly-educated affluent families (Noble, Norman & Farah, 2005). While there is some empirical evidence to support the above claims, current researchers such as Dubow et al. (2009) are now developing a more sophisticated understanding that the noteworthy disparities in academic performance, may be better explained by the influence of environmental-contextual factors (e.g. parental education, family interaction and household income). Moreover, since Cassen and Kingdon (2007) suggested that schools’ performance contributed to only 14% of the variation of low attainment, it becomes self-evident to examine the influence of family background, which has continually been suggested to be the central significant predictor of child’s cognitive abilities and their subsequent literacy development (Fuchs & Young, 2006). Consequently, the overarching aims of this essay will be to critically review the current literature highlighting the implication of socio-economic and home background disparities on academic performance. Two interventions will then be proposed, in an attempt to: (1) minimise the economic-achievement...
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...resources of which they don’t have. Education has been celebrated as the pathway to become successful and move forward, because it is available to everyone regardless of who they are. Yet, education may still not be a viable way of moving up, because of the poor quality of schools in low-income neighborhoods. Consequently, many argue that in order to tackle educational inequality we must address family SES (socioeconomic status), because it’s the most significant factor in educational attainment. However, I posit that the more effective approach to solving this issue is to pursue policies directed towards to...
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...Health disparities are an important maker of inequality in a society. In the United States, there are large socioeconomic disparities in health. Although low birth weight is not a direct measure of infant morbidity, it is frequently used as a marker for poor health at birth because it is a leading risk factors for infant mortality and for subsequent morbidity among surviving infants. Cultural and ethnic disparities in health disproportionately affect minority Americans. One of the greatest challenges facing the US healthcare system is the persistence of disparities in infant and maternal health among the different racial and ethnic groups. Despite substantial research on determinants of cultural and ethnic disparities in birth outcomes in the United States, much remains to be explained. The differences in socioeconomic status, maternal risky behaviors example: cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption during pregnancy, prenatal care, psychosocial stress, perinatal infection, young maternal age and low educational attainment account for more disparities. The impact of extremely low birth weight babies on family and society is associated with more long term stress, even for well-educated nuclear families whose health care is financed by the government...
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...Literature Review #1 Citation: Betts, Julian R., (2011), “The Economics of Tracking in Education”, in Hanushek, Eric A., Stephen Machin and Ludger Woessmann (Eds.), Handbook of the Economics Of Education, Volume 3, Amsterdam: North Holland, pp. 341-381. (found on article excerpt) Betts, Julian, Eric A. Hanushek, Stephen Machin, and Ludger Woessman. Handbook of the Economics of Education. Vol. 3. Amsterdam: North Holland, 2011. Print. (MLA citation) In Ballantine and Spade’s piece, Understanding Education through Sociological Theory, macro-level theories are discussed in detail. One theory that stands out is referred to as the labeling theory, which highlights the sense of self that youth ranging from the age of 6 to 18 develop in school. In particular, it addresses the notion of how labeling children may likely lead to self-fulfilling prophesies. For instance, if a child is labeled as less capable or more incompetent than his fellow peers, his sense of self may plummet as a result and lead to him never performing to his maximum potential at any point in his academic career. The labeling theory resonates with the idea of tracking of students in the education system. Tracking in American education typically involves grouping and labeling sets of students as low-performing, average, or high-performing. Based on several previous studies in addition to the research carried out by the authors of the paper, The Economics of Tracking in Education, it is apparent that tracking “increases...
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...Nursing in 3D: Diversity, Disparities, and Social Determinants The Social Determinants of Health: It’s Time to Consider the Causes of the Causes Paula Braveman, MD, MPHa Laura Gottlieb, MD, MPHb ABSTRACT During the past two decades, the public health community’s attention has been drawn increasingly to the social determinants of health (SDH)—the factors apart from medical care that can be influenced by social policies and shape health in powerful ways. We use “medical care” rather than “health care” to refer to clinical services, to avoid potential confusion between “health” and “health care.” The World Health Organization’s Commission on the Social Determinants of Health has defined SDH as “the conditions in which people are born, grow, live, work and age” and “the fundamental drivers of these conditions.” The term “social determinants” often evokes factors such as health-related features of neighborhoods (e.g., walkability, recreational areas, and accessibility of healthful foods), which can influence health-related behaviors. Evidence has accumulated, however, pointing to socioeconomic factors such as income, wealth, and education as the fundamental causes of a wide range of health outcomes. This article broadly reviews some of the knowledge accumulated to date that highlights the importance of social—and particularly socioeconomic— factors in shaping health, and plausible pathways and biological mechanisms that may explain their effects. We also discuss...
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...The article, ‘Functional and Conflict Theories of Educational Stratification’ authored by Randall Collin, tries to find out reason for the cliché higher technical education is a solution for all professional problem of a person. It seeks to find out the reality behind an almost ritualized belief that higher technical education leads to prosperity and wealth by opening-up gates for elitist white-collar job. Hence there has been an increasing demand for the same all across the developed economies. A great deal of government wealth along with public wealth is being spent for technological education. It’s beheld as a vehicle for development of the individual and the state. Randall Collins is an American sociologist who is a professor at University of Pennsylvania, U.S. He believes that increased reliance on education for higher occupational attainment has turned education into a potential tool for social mobility as well as for social stratification in America. Hence he tries to find out the link between education and social stratification through a Functional and Conflict perspective as mentioned below. Technical-function theory Conflict theory Technical-function theory According to this theory social origins being a constant it is seen that the higher the number of years of education the more is the occupational attainment. The other implication is that technological advancements have led to the increase in skill requirements necessary for employment, and education system...
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...minority population in the U.S. The CDC (2015) asserts that approximately 1 in 6 people staying in the U.S are Hispanic. While Hispanics are a considerable part of the U.S., the group faces significant health disparities. Current health status Lifestyle diseases are the leading cause of death among Hispanics. According to the CDC (2015), every 2 of 5 deaths among Hispanics are caused by cancer and heart disease. Equally, a large percentage of Hispanics lack health insurance. The CDC (2015) estimates that Hispanics are nearly 3 times as likely to lack insurance as whites. The inadequate insurance of Hispanics can be ascribed to the economic status of the group. As a result of immigration, most Hispanics are more likely than whites to hold menial and low paying jobs. Even if Hispanics may have the ability to purchase health insurance, the requirements of ACA (2010) exclude undocumented immigrant from doing so (Hummer & Hayward, 2015). Since some Hispanics are undocumented immigrants, it becomes difficult to purchase insurance. Regardless of the fact that Hispanics have low levels of insurance, they have high life expectancy. Hispanics live longer than other populations in the country. Notwithstanding having a considerably lower level of health insurance and educational attainment and a much superior level of poverty, Hispanics presently have high life expectancy than their socioeconomically privileged counterparts in the country (Hummer & Hayward, 2015). While Hispanics live longer...
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...According to the assigned article, "Health Disparity and Structural Violence: How Fear Undermines Health Among Immigrants at Risk for Diabetes," narratives tell the story of the interconnectedness between fear and health. Thematically, the issue of fear is a dominant feature that affects how an individual approaches day-to-day living and health. Explain the relationship between fear and health identified by the researchers in the article. Do you agree that structural violence perpetuates health disparity? In the assigned reading article, researchers propose that minority populaces are at higher risk for diabetes than the social majority. This risk is directly linked to a decreased sense of educational attainment and high levels of poverty. “There are significant disparities associated with diabetes based on race and ethnicity”(Page-Reeves et al., 2013). These identified risks are associated with common fears among these individuals. There are three magnitudes of fear that the researchers have revealed while interviewing this minority group. As a direct result of this distress, individuals from this minority group are sometimes afraid to approach health care. The first identified fear is cost. “The fear of cost can be understood as a form of violence that is not something experienced by people who have health insurance or sufficient resources”(Page-Reeves et al., 2013). More often than not, these individuals are uninsured and cannot afford necessary health care. Individuals...
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...America has become one of the most diverse and wealthiest countries in the world. Although the United States is wealthy, not all individuals have benefited from that wealth. Throughout society, African American communities have become marginalized, with areas of poverty, high crime rates, discrimination and few opportunities for advancement. These areas are often locations where racial and cultural minorities live. Racial disparities exist within the criminal justice system and have shown many problems of inequality between the white and black race. In addition to having inequality within the criminal justice system, the criminals also have impacted their family members in different ways due to being incarcerated. The media has misrepresented African Americans by emphasizing African Americans participating in crimes while ignoring crimes committed by whites. People in society are assuming that only black people commit crimes, which is unfair because the incidences of people committing crimes are about equal between the races. Racial disparity favors white people over black people in the criminal justice system. Therefore, society must reevaluate the way society portrays who commits crimes, and where they are committed. Throughout many decades of history, black people had been discriminated against and treated as second class citizens in American society, even though they participated equally in the workforce. Discrimination has happened from slavery until present times. For...
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...during the last fifty years. This revolution is likely to continue to impact not only on the administration of the Nigeria, but on the society at large. The argument proposed here asserts that equality of opportunity of women and men is more likely to be achieved if both genders embrace the changes now occurring in communication and information use with similar vigour. This term paper seeks to highlight on the concept of gender discrimination, even as sundry instances of the persistent issue is well sustained. The argument proposed here provides an anecdotal rather than theoretical overview of the way in which the use of information technology has come to dominate modern decision making in a variety of contexts. The dimension of women disparity and the need to correct such inequality is elaborated. Finally, the areas of applications of information technology in curbing gender differences and the probable outcome of such applications is well addressed. INTRODUCTION Women are key to the development challenge. Throughout the developing world, women are at a disadvantage at the household, community, and societal levels. Within the household, women have less access to and control over resources and limited influence over household decisions. Beyond the household, women have limited access to communal resources, are under-represented in public decision-making bodies; have limited bargaining power in markets (such as the labour market), and often lack opportunities to improve their...
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...of the population in the United States and have overwhelmingly surpassed men in the attainment of Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees. In 2011, women only comprised 16.1 percent of board seats in Fortune 500 companies in the United States (Soares, 2011). This large gender disparity is hurting our boards immensely, as it is not showing enough of a large percentage of the population. In other countries the inclusion of other races and genders has been documented to show that it can help a company immensely in regards to profitability. In this report, we are going to talk about gender disparity, what it is, how it affects our Boards, what is being done, and ultimately what we can do even more to help bridge the gap in our gender disparity. We will also discuss the pros and cons of gender quotas when it comes to firms and women and also what is being done outside the United States to combat gender disparity internationally, either voluntarily or through law. Gender disparity, simply put, is inequality. In regards to this report we focus on the disparity of power when it comes to serving on Boards of Directors. According to Rachel Soares, who graphical depicts her information, shows that about 83% of all boards are composed of men overwhelmingly. (2011) That means women only make up about 17% of the member of a Board of Directors, and we consider that a problem. In figure 1 below, we show the disparity of women who hold positions on boards. (Soares, 2011) As you can see more than a tenth...
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...American Indian and Alaska Native Populations: How They Fair vs. the National Average Kari L. Singer Grand Canyon University: NRS- March 1, 2015 American Indian and Alaska Native Populations: How They Fair vs. the National Average There are many different ethnicities and cultures in the United States. This paper will be comparing American Indians and Alaska Natives health to that of the national average. We will be looking at the current health status of this ethnic group compared to the national average, their definition of Health Promotion, three health disparities affecting this ethnic group, and finally we will see an example of a program that promotes health prevention. Current Health Status of American Indians and Alaska Natives The American Indian and Alaska Native populations make up about 2% of the total U.S. population, numbering roughly 5.2 million, according to the 2013 census. American Indians and Alaska Natives (AI/AN), differ from the national average in culture, socioeconomic status, and education. The percentage of AI/AN’s who lacked health insurance in 2013 was 26.9% compared to the 16.6% of the national average (CDC, 2015). They have limited access to employer-sponsored health coverage due to working in low wage jobs and jobs that don’t offer insurance (Artiga, et. al., 2013). AI/AN have the highest poverty rate of all ethnic groups at 0.9% to 1.5% of the total population. This group is more likely to report being in fair or poor health. When comparing...
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