...ASSIGNMENT 1: PROPERTIES OF DNA/RNA Introduction: The polymerase chain reaction is an innovative technology, which amplifies a single piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude. The end result is the creation of thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. PCR is closely patterned after the natural principle of DNA replication. It is a three-step process, referred to as a cycle, that is repeated a specified number of times. One PCR cycle consists of the following steps: * Denaturation * Annealing * Extension This process takes place in a thermal cycles, usually between 30 and 40 cycles. In the initial step, heat (usually hotter than 90 degrees Celsius) separates double-stranded DNA into two single strands. This process is called "denaturation." Denaturation is possible because the hydrogen bonds linking the bases to one another are weak. The hydrogen bonds break at high temperatures, whereas the bonds between deoxyribose and phosphates, which are stronger covalent bonds, remain intact. The goal of PCR is not to replicate the entire strand of DNA but to replicate a target sequence of approximately 100-600 base pairs unique to the organism being studied. Targeting the sequence is achieved by using primers. They are specific for the target region of the organism. Two primers are included in the PCR, one for each of the complementary single DNA strands that was produced during denaturation. The primers that anneal or in other...
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...purification of genomic DNA requires three main processes which include, lysing of cells to release the DNA, purifying the solution by removing unwanted macromolecules, and precipitating the DNA from the solution. The process of isolation and purification requires several reagents. The Nuclei Lysis Solution contains lysozyme and EDTA. The lysozyme is an enzyme that degrades peptidoglycan, which is a rigid exoskeleton cell wall that protect the bacteria (3). Disrupting the peptidoglycan will result the release of the content inside the cell and the death of the cell. In addition to inhibiting DNases, the EDTA in the lysis solution aids the lysozyme to access the peptidoglycan by removing the Mg2+ from the lipopolysaccharide...
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...DNA Fingerprinting Using Agarose Gel S. Aaron Sowards Bio 122 Lab 04 Brianna Adanitsch Jakob Lester Minhenga Ngijoi 2/21/18 Dr. Chad R. Sethman Abstract DNA fingerprinting is the process of analyzing an individual’s DNA base-pair patterns. The DNA fingerprinting lab involved identifying the suspect using Agarose Gel and Polymerase Chain Reaction. It was found that suspect two s DNA matched the crime scene DNA. This is known because suspect twos DNA traveled the same distance as the crime scene DNA. DNA Fingerprinting Using Agarose Gel Introduction In 1984 Dr. Alex Jeffreys came up with deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) fingerprinting, which is also known as DNA profiling or DNA typing. DNA fingerprinting is the analyzing...
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... telling about DNA that was found in the leg bone of a 400,000 year-old fossil. This is a huge development since scientists have not been able to find DNA in fossils older than 60,000 years (Rincon, 2013). The bone described in this article was found in Spain in an area referred to as the ‘Pit of Bones’(Rincon, 2013). This is a cave where the remains of 28 people were found. The ‘Pit of Bones’ is located near Burgos in Northern Spain (Rincon, 2013). The bones were found to be of ancient people who lived in the Middle Pleistocene Age. For scientists, accessing these bones was not an easy task as the cave is hidden and is only accessible through ropes and tunnels. One of the most important renowned characteristics of DNA is that it breaks down as time passes. It is therefore fairly difficult to access DNA as old as 400,000 years (Rincon, 2013). However, as reported in this article, technology has helped scientists to make such discoveries as the one described herein. The scientists who made this discovery were also able to come up with a sequence of mitochondrial DNA from the femur, although it was incomplete. This sequence showed a relationship with 40,000 year-old fossils found in Siberia (Rincon, 2013). The cause of this relationship is said to be interbreeding across ancient populations from different regions. The scientists also related the DNA acquired to the Homo antecessor, an ancient human species. The next step from this discovery is to find nuclear DNA that is more helpful...
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...Name: Andrew Michael Kint Course: MBChB Module: Biochemistry Lecturer: Professor Sheehama Slot: school of medicine Declaration 1. I know that plagiarism is wrong. Plagiarism is to use another person’s work and present it as one’s own. 2. Each significant contribution to, and quotation in this report that I have taken from the work (s) of other people has been attributed, and has been cited and referenced. 3. This report is my own. 4. I have not allowed, and will not allow anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing it off as his/her own work. Signature date Question: Discuss what are the nucleotides and nucleic acids in human health and disease Almost all living cells contain two very important substances, deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA and ribonucleic acid or RNA. These molecules carry instructions for making proteins. The help specify the amino acid sequence and thus which proteins will be made. When nucleotides join together they form the functional units of the structure of DNA and RNA where DNA contains one less hydroxyl group than RNA. Nucleotides serve as a source of energy therefore playing an important role in metabolism, for example mitochondria produce ATP or Adenosine triphosphate. They also serve as co-factors in enzymatic reactions and participate in cell signalling for example as Camp messengers. A single nucleotide is made up...
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...head: SIGNIFICANCE OF DNA Significance of DNA Significance of DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was first discovered in 1869 by Johann Friedrich Miescher, but it was not until the 1950s while studying viral replication did Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase determine DNA was Genetic material. In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick discovered DNA was a double helix (a double helix looks like a twisted ladder). The discovery of Watson and Crick opened the door helping describe the significance and importance of DNA as the molecule of inheritance while addressing the structure of the DNA molecule, and why is a molecule of DNA so perfect for the job it performs. I will look at what exactly does DNA code for, how is that translated into actual traits, what are mitosis and meiosis, what are the similarities and differences, and what do mitosis and meiosis allow for. I will show how traits are passed from parents to offspring and lastly describe how knowledge of DNA and genetics can help in my life. The Significance and Importance of deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) as the Molecule of Inheritance The significance and importance of DNA “is the body’s instruction manual for making you who you are. It is present in any living being. It carries all the instructions and materials the body needs to function”(Leving, 2008). The DNA in cells is all the same for individuals, which create a specific identity for each individual. Discuss Briefly the structure of the DNA Molecule and Why is...
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...living organisms. Charles Darwin characterized the result as endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful. It has always been debated if there is any evidence of evolution and in what fields, in this report we will give a brief summary concerning: • DNA Evidence of Evolution • Biological Evidence of Evolution DNA Evidence of Evolution: DNA molecules are complex molecules which contain the assembly instructions for every living creature. Certain aspects of DNA have been interpreted as evidence for Darwinian evolution. DNA evidence for evolution includes mutations, genetic similarities among species, so-called “Junk DNA” and “Pseudogenes.” The fact that mutations can corrupt DNA is important for the Darwinian paradigm because in order for an organism to eventually evolve into an entirely different organism, changes must be made to the creature’s genome over time. But Darwinian evolution needs more than just change. It needs an increase in genetic information. Critics point out that genetic mutation does not appear to provide a mechanism for that increase. In fact, there appear to be genetic limitations to the potential for biological change. Genetic similarities between species are also interpreted as DNA evidence for evolution. The fact that human and chimp DNA are more than 96% the same is taken to mean that humans are genetically related to chimps and therefore descended from a common ancestor. Opponents of...
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...Introduction The Human Genome project (HGP) is interesting to me, because everyone has DNA and the way that scientists are able to tie our DNA to our possible future in the way of diseases is amazing and scary. The Human Genome Project is a project that was created by the U.S. Department of Energy in conjunction with the National Institute of Health in order to determine the complete DNA sequence of a person’s hereditary information. The project started in 1990 and was finally completed thirteen years later in 2003. The goal of this project was as follows: “identify all the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA, determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA, store this information in databases, improve tools for data analysis, transfer related technologies to the private sector, and Address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the project.” (Popular Issues Home, 2012) So far in the project: “more than 60 disease-linked genes have been identified and are believed to be advantageous to gene-based therapy development”; going forward scientist hope to identify all of the estimated 80,000 genes in human DNA. (Wattanapitayakul & Schommer, 1999) The total cost of this project was $3 billion dollars this includes the study of” human diseases, experimental organisms (such as bacteria, yeast, worms, flies, and mice); development of new technologies for biological and medical research; computational methods...
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...Report on the connection between the Central dogma of Molecular Biology/ Bioinformatics, Model Organism and Drug Designing. The basis of the central dogma of molecular biology is the expression of the genetic information in any call. It is a universal process that occurs in every cell. The genetic information is stored in the DNA. During gene expression DNA is transcript to RNA and these RNA are transcribed to proteins. Bioinformatics deals with the genetic information which involves collecting, analyzing, manipulating and predicting etc. For the functioning of bioinformatics it is essential to know the genetic information that is stored in DNA. Therefore sequencing of DNA, genes or genomes is the fundamental need in bioinformatics. Organisms that are used in biological experiments in laboratories are called ‘model organisms’, of which most genomes are sequenced at present (rat, yeast, Arabidopsis; plant model organism) These sequenced genomes could be analyzed using bioinformatics tools in order to identify genes of significance as in drought tolerance genes in plants etc. Information revealed from sequencing could be studied using bioinformatics tools to understand its underlying mechanisms and to generate models that could be used in further studies. This information could also be used in evolutionary studies, micro array analysis, identification of genetic disorders (Alzheimer’s disease, breast cancer, cystic fibrosis, spinal muscular atrophy etc.) ...
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...PTC Taster Genomic Analysis Lab Report Laboratory Goals: 1. Determine Taster Phenotype 2. Isolate DNA from each individual 3. Determine Taster Genotype Hypothesis: If I am a taster, then my genotype for PTC taster must be either TT (homozygous dominant) or Tt (heterozygous) I – Results: This experiment aimed to investigate the allele frequency of the PTC taster gene (TAS2R38) in a small population, represented by the students in class. The genotype obtained from genomic analysis (via PCR and gel electrophoresis) confirmed that the genotypic result is consistent with the phenotypic result observed at the beginning of the lab. However, DNA fragments of 3 lab subjects didn’t show up on the gel. The allele frequencies can’t be calculated because the data is insufficient to apply the Hardy-Weinberg equation. There are many factors that might be contributed to the invisibility of these DNA fragments, most likely accidental errors. For example, the DNA wasn’t loaded onto the gel probably, or the DNA for some reason didn’t sink to the bottom of the well, or just simply there was not enough DNA. To determine the genotypic profile of the students PTC gene, DNA samplers from each individual was collected from saliva. Using premade PTC primers (short oligonucleotides), a DNA template that encoded the PTC gene (approximately, 303 bp) was amplified by PCR. After amplification, the produced DNA fragments were digested with Fnu4H1 to identify if the lab subjects...
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...Rationale Does mutations always lead to diseases? Mutation can either lead to diseases or be beneficial to an organism. The ability of DNA to mutate enables life to overcome changes in the environment. Mutation are a natural occurrence in all organism. It could occur spontaneously through errors during DNA replication. It could also occur when the organism is exposed to mutagens such as chemicals or radiation resulting in insertion, deletion or replacing DNA base. Not all mutations will affect the phenotype of the organism and cause disease. Some mutations have no noticeable effect because it occurs in a part of the protein that is not important to its function. Some mutations have been proven to have a positive effect on the human body, this leads to a new version of protein that can help an individual adapt better to the change in environment. To answer the question : Do mutations always cause diseases in human and does haemoglobin mutation have beneficial traits? Sickle cell disease will be used as a case study to answer the question. . A summary of this refinement and the specific research question is Does haemoglobin mutation confer greater beneficial traits to an organism. Background...
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...germline mutations in genes causing familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP),1 hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer(HNPCC),2-8 Peutz-Jeghers syndrome,9,10 and juvenile polyposis.11-13 Because the genes that are mutated in familial colorectal cancer syndromes can be mutated at a variety of different locations, assays for mutation detection are not simple. Many different approaches to mutation detection have been described in the literature, some of which are also described here. Specific strategies for testing are also discussed. THE BASICS Isolation of DNA and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) DNA or RNA for genetic testing is almost always isolated from peripheral-blood leukocytes. This requires that the blood be drawn in tubes containing some sort of anticoagulant. The preferred anticoagulants are either citrate or EDTA. The cells are lysed followed by removal of the other cellular components and precipitation of the DNA or RNA in ethanol. One of the drawbacks of this approach is that the blood must be rapidly transported to the laboratory where the testing will be performed before the nucleic acids begin to degrade. Recent developments in filter paper technology show promise in obviating this problem. Special filter papers...
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...Running Head: PERSONALIZED MEDICINE PERSONALIZED MEDICINE Margaret Barnes SCl115-Introduction to Biology November 07, 2012 PERSONALIZED MEDICINE Personalized Medicine and Modern Genetics Technology: “Introduction” In today’s world DNA sequences are frequently and constantly improving, modern instruments can analyze DNA by the millions within a twenty-four hour period (Mader, 2010, P.178). Because of technology, these instruments have been made available now and in the future for the use of personalized medicinal products. This paper provides an overview of how modern genetic technology may lead to personalized medicine, and to give examples two or more specific benefits of personalized medicine: a discussion of its drawbacks and limitations of the approach to human medicine. “Modern Genetic Technology and Personalized Medicine” Modern technology is constantly growing in our world, for us to understand how modern genetic technology may lead to personalized medicine and the importance personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is the tailoring of medical treatment for an individual with the unique characteristics for each patient. This approach is a scientific...
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...BIOL2103 Biological Sciences Laboratory Course Practical 3 Laboratory manual Isolation of nucleic acid and spectrophotometry Introduction: The ability to isolate and quantify nucleic acids accurately and rapidly is a prerequisite for many of the methods used in biochemistry and molecular biology. The concentration of DNA or RNA in a sample, and its condition, are often estimated by running the sample on an agarose gel. Such concentration estimates are semiquantitative at best and are time-consuming. For a more accurate determination of the concentration of DNA or RNA in a sample, a UV spectrophotometer is commonly used. Spectrophotometry uses the fact that there is a relationship between the absorption of ultraviolet light by DNA/RNA and its concentration in a sample. The absorption maximum of DNA/RNA is approx 260nm. The purity of a solution of DNA can be determined using a comparison of the optical density values of the solution at various wavelengths. For pure DNA, the observed A260/A280 ratio will be near 1.8. Elevated ratios usually indicate the presence of RNA. The A260/A280 ratio is used to assess RNA purity. An A260/A280 ratio of 1.8-2.1 is indicative of highly purified RNA. The 260/280 ratio below 1.8 often signal the presence of a contaminating protein or phenol. Alternatively, protein or phenol contamination is indicated by 230/260 ratios greater than 0.5. Workflow Time 2 days before the lab session During lab session 1:30 pm Task Cell...
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...How DNA is packed in the nucleus of an eukaryotic cell 1) Introduction DNA, deoxynucleic acid, is known to be able to condense to form a smaller structure known as chromosomes. However, it is hard to imagine how does a 2m long DNA molecule can be packed into something which only have a rough diameter of 10µm in the eukaryotic cell. This report provides an overview on how DNA is packed in the nucleus of an eukaryotic cell. It will cover the structure of the human DNA, levels of packing the DNA and the necessity and benefits of DNA packing. 2) Structure of Human DNA The human DNA is made up of two polynucleotide strands wrapped around each other in a double helix structure. The two DNA strands in the double helix structure is oriented in opposite direction. A 3’ end of a DNA strand at the start of the strand has an OH group at its terminal, and ends with a 5’ end with a phosphate group attached to its terminal....
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