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Efficiency Education Expenditure in Indonesia

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PENDAHULUAN
Pendidikan merupakan hal penting bagi agenda pembangunan pemerintah Indonesia. Namun, pada kenyataannya Negara ini masih tertinggal dari Negara-negara tetangga sehubungan dengan gross enrollment rate dan akses terhadap layanan pendidikan yang bermutu. Salah satu fokus upaya memperbaiki hal tersebut adalah melalui alokasi belanja pendidikan. Pada tahun 2011, Indonesia membelanjakan hampir Rp 196 triliun untuk subsidi energy-- sementara anggaran pendidikan hanya sebesar Rp 91 triliun. Masa depan pembangunan Indonesia bergantung pada kemajuan pemerintah dalam meningkatkan kualitas dari belanja publik untuk pendidikan ini.

REVIEW PAPER UTAMA
Arze del Granado, F Javier, Wolfgang Fengler, Andy Ragatz, and Elif Yavuz. 2007. Investing in Indonesia’s Education: Allocation, Equity, and Efficiency of Public Expenditure. Policy Research Working Paper, 4329.

Sehubungan dengan belanja publik untuk pendidikan, pemerintah masih harus menghadapi beberapa tantangan dalam upaya memberikan layanan pendidikan bermutu. Arze del Granado, Fengler, Ragatz & Yavuz (2007) membahas tentang tiga hal utama yakni alokasi, keadilan, dan efisiensi belanja publik untuk pendidikan di Indonesia. Masalah yang disorot adalah pemerataan dan efisiensi dari belanja pendidikan tersebut dengan menunjukkan tingkat pengembalian sosial berdasarkan tingkat pendidikan, distribusi guru di Indonesia, dan dengan menilai kecukupan pendapatan tenaga didik saat ini.

Berdasarkan data susenas, tingkat pendidikan di Indonesia telah meningkat secara signifikan sejak tahun 1970. Namun, kualitas jasa di bidang pendidikan masih belum berada di tingkat yang diinginkan. Tantangan utama yang harus dihadapi Indonesia untuk mencapai tujuan “Education For All (EFA)” diantaranya adalah mengurangi ketidaksetaraan enrollment rates, dan meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan. Kualitas pendidikan di Indonesia ini termasuk tingkat kualifikasi guru, struktur kompensasi guru, kualitas ruangan kelas, tingkat kehadiran guru, dan ukuran kelas.

Tren belanja publik dalam pendidikan di Indonesia cenderung meningkat sejak tahun 1990-an, dan sekitar 62% dieksekusi pada tingkat sub-nasional dengan spenders utama pemerintah wilayah. Namun, belanja pendidikan ini sebagian besar digunakan untuk belanja rutin seperti untuk gaji tenaga guru, sedangkan belanja “pembangunan” masih menjadi tanggung jawab pemerintah pusat. Selanjutnya, Granado et al. (2007) menemukan bahwa kesenjangan enrollment rates di seluruh tingkat pendapatan telah berkurang pada tingkat pendidikan dasar, tetapi kesenjangan yang mencolok masih terjadi pada tingkat pendidikan menengah pertama dan menengah atas. Enrollment rates di Indonesia juga masih bervariasi tergantung wilayahnya.

Meskipun anggaran pendidikan meningkat, rasio siswa-guru yang sangat rendah di Indonesia menunjukkan ketidakefisienan dalam belanja sektor pendidikan (20:1 untuk pendidikan dasar, 14:1 untuk pendidikan menengah pertama, sementara rasio siswa-kelas dua kali lipatnya, yakni 37:1). Gaji tenaga guru merupakan biaya yang cukup signifikan, sehingga rasio siswa-guru yang rendah menyumbang beban finansial yang tinggi dalam anggaran pendidikan Indonesia. Menurut data yang disajikan Granado et al. (2000), sekitar 55% sekolah kelebihan tenaga guru, sementara 34% kekurangan tenaga guru. Masalah ketersediaan tenaga guru ini berhubungan dengan ketidakefisienan distribusinya. Sekolah yang berada di tempat terpencil masih sangat kekurangan tenaga guru.

Indonesia juga tidak memperoleh dampak penuh dari tenaga kerja pendidiknya karena tingkat absen guru yang cukup tinggi. Hal ini dapat menjadi salah satu penyebab sekolah merasa “kekurangan” tenaga guru. Selain itu, metode penyediaan guru yang saat ini diterapkan dapat mendorong sekolah untuk meminta lebih banyak guru dari pemerintah pusat. Dengan metode yang saat ini diterapkan, sekolah tidak terdorong untuk merekrut tenaga guru dengan lebih efisien dan menggunakan sumber daya yang telah ada secara maksimal.

Untuk meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan di Indonesia, pemerintah menerapkan kebijakan baru untuk guru pada tahun 2005. Pemerintah Indonesia memperkenalkan syarat sertifikasi baru untuk guru, di sisi lain juga meningkatkan gaji guru. Granado et al. (2007) menyebutkan bahwa gaji yang rendah mungkin menjadi penyebab utama guru di Indonesia memiliki kinerja buruk, semangat dan kualitas kerja yang juga rendah. Namun, kebijakan baru ini akan meningkatkan belanja rutin upah guru dalam jangka waktu 10 tahun ke depan. Menaikkan gaji guru ini memang beralasan, tetapi jika mengganggu alokasi anggaran pendidikan untuk keperluan lain, mereka mungkin akan mempengaruhi secara negatif hasil pendidikan ke depannya. Untuk mengurangi potensi terjadinya hal ini, Granado et al. (2007) menyarankan pemerintah mengatasi kelebihan pasokan tenaga guru.
REVIEW PAPER PENDUKUNG
Berdasarkan data yang ditampilkan paper utama, anggaran pendidikan yang dikeluarkan Indonesia meningkat hampir setiap tahun. Walau begitu, masalah pendidikan tidak langsung terselesaikan dengan hanya meningkatkan anggaran. Faktor efisiensi dalam penggunaan anggaran pendidikan tetap menjadi isu penting. Salah satu cara yang bisa dilakukan untuk meningkatkan efisiensi ini adalah dengan meningkatkan kualitas tenaga guru.

Mengembangkan tenaga guru yang memiliki kualitas tinggi dan terdistribusi secara efisien merupakan pencapaian yang penting bagi kualitas sistem pendidikan Indonesia. Kualitas tenaga guru Indonesia yang masih rendah dikaitkan dengan masalah seperti kelebihan pasokan tenaga guru (sehingga tidak efisien), tingkat upah yang rendah, dan sistem perekrutan guru yang masih lemah.

Menyadari betapa pentingnya peran guru, pemerintah Indonesia mulai menerapkan kebijakan sertifikasi guru pada Desember 2005. Program sertifikasi adalah proses pemberian sertifikasi pada guru yang telah memenuhi persyaratan sertifikasi. Kebijakan sertifikasi ini merupakan mandat dari UU Guru dan Dosen No. 14 Tahun 2005. Berdasarkan hukum yang mengaturnya, sertifikasi ini memiliki tujuan untuk meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan di Indonesia. Pemerintah mengharapkan, dengan diberlakukannya kebijakan sertifikasi ini, kompetensi, pengajaran, kepribadian, serta profesionalitas guru di Indonesia dapat meningkat (Fahmi, Maulana, Yusuf: 2007).

Salah satu elemen penting dalam kebijakan ini adalah meningkatkan remunerasi guru, selain juga meningkatkan kualifikasi guru. Alasan dibalik peningkatan remunerasi guru ini adalah supaya guru di Indonesia yang belum memiliki sertifikasi memiliki insentif untuk memperoleh sertifikasi yang sesuai. Kebijakan ini penting untuk menciptakan standar kualitas guru di Indonesia, mengingat saat ini baru 37% tenaga guru yang berhasil memenuhi kualifikasi. Lebih jauh lagi, insentif cukup besar yang ditawarkan dapat menarik lulusan universitas atau pelamar yang berkualitas untuk menjadi guru (Suryahadi&Sambodho: 2012).

Namun di sisi lain, menurut penelitian yang dilakukan Fahmi et al. (2011), sertifikasi ini tidak memiliki dampak terhadap kualitas pendidikan di Indonesia. Mereka melakukan penelitian dengan melihat dampak program sertifikasi ini pada pencapaian siswa didik dengan melakukan survey pada guru Sekolah Dasar (SD), baik yang sudah memiliki sertifikasi maupun belum, dan mengukur dampaknya dengan melihat hasil ujian nasional siswa didik. Hasil penelitian mereka memunculkan sejumlah kekhawatiran, bahwa tujuan dari sertifikasi itu bukan untuk meningkatkan kinerja tapi lebih kepada meningkatkan standar hidup para guru (yang menurut mereka direfleksikan dari hasil penelitian hasil kinerja siswa yang tidak mengalami peningkatan). Kebijakan ini juga memiliki kelemahan karena tidak adanya sistem control atau reward&punishment yang diterapkan kepada guru setelah mendapat sertifikasi. Dengan kata lain, pemberian insentif tidak mempertimbangkan faktor kinerja guru.

Selain itu, kebijakan sertifikasi guru ini juga menimbulkan masalah lain, yakni beban biaya yang harus ditanggung pemerintah. Implikasi biaya ini muncul dari biaya insentif sertifikasi untuk meningkatkan kualitas guru, dan biaya insentif penempatan tenaga guru di tempat terpencil. Seiring berjalannya waktu, jumlah guru yang memperoleh sertifikasi akan terus meningkat, maka biaya untuk upah dan insentif tambahan yang diberikan tentu juga akan meningkat. Pada 2016, biaya insentif ini diperkirakan akan mencapai Rp 102.7 triliun atau sebesar 130% dari keseluruhan anggaran pendidikan tahun 2005.

Figur 1. Ilustrasi Peningkatan Biaya Akibat Kebijakan Insentif Baru bagi Guru Bersertifikasi

TINJAUAN KASUS
Peningkatan pendapatan per kapita akan mendorong terjadinya transformasi struktural di sebuah Negara. Transformasi struktural mengindikasikan bahwa sebuah Negara sedang melalui tahap pembangunan ekonomi (pergeseran dari sector primer, ke sector sekunder, dan berakhir pada titik tersier). Salah satu indikator terjadinya transformasi struktural di sebuah Negara adalah tingkat pendidikan yang meningkat. Peningkatan tingkat pendidikan ini bisa diukur melalui beberapa hal seperti melalui peningkatan belanja pendidikan, peningkatan enrollment rates, dan peningkatan kualitas pendidikannya.

Dalam pendidikan, kualitas guru adalah hal fundamental yang tak dapat diabaikan. Kualitas guru yang tinggi dapat membawa tujuan belajar menjadi semakin optimal. Menurut data yang disajikan di paper utama, kualitas guru di Indonesia terbilang masih rendah dengan inefesiensi yang cukup tinggi dibandingkan dengan negara tetangga seperti Malaysia. Factor yang mempengaruhi kualitas guru ini antara lain tingkat pendidikan guru itu sendiri dan kesejahteraan guru yang belum banyak meningkat sehingga mempengaruhi kualitas mengajarnya.

Seperti sudah disinggung di bagian sebelumnya, pemerintah Indonesia berusaha meningkatkan kualitas guru dengan membuat kebijakan sertifikasi guru. Usaha pemerintah untuk meningkatkan kualitas guru ini patut diapresiasi sebagai salah satu usaha meningkatkan kualitas pendidikan. Pemerintah juga berusaha menyeimbangkan hak dan kewajiban guru dengan memberikan kenaikan gaji dan tunjangan bagi guru yang telah mendapat sertifikasi. Memang, jika dibandingkan dengan Negara lain, misalnya Malaysia, tingkat upah yang diterima guru di Indonesia terbilang masih rendah. Tingkat upah yang diterima oleh tenaga guru di Malaysia bahkan hampir setara dengan upah tenaga guru di Finlandia, cukup tinggi apalagi jika dibandingkan dengan Negara ASEAN (data terlihat di Tabel 2).

Figur 2. Perbandingan Rata-Rata Gaji Tenaga Didik Masa Jabatan Menengah
Di sisi lain, Malaysia juga mulai memberlakukan beberapa kebijakan untuk meningkatkan kualitas tenaga didiknya. Beberapa kebijakan yang diterapkan antara lain dengan meningkatkan standar rekrutmen guru, meningkatkan efektivitas pengembangan standar professional profesi guru, dan berkomitmen untuk menyediakan jenjang karir yang cerah bagi tenaga guru supaya profesi guru ini dapat menjadi profesi yang prestisius.

Pada akhirnya, tujuan akhir dari peningkatan kualitas baik tenaga didik maupun sistem pendidikan yang ada di dunia adalah memastikan bahwa siswanya telah dibekali pengetahuan dan kemampuan yang memadai untuk meraih kesuksesan. Penilaian siswa internasional seperti PISA (the Programme for International Student Assessment) dan TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) muncul sebagai cara untuk mengukur kualitas pendidikan dan pengetahuan siswa, dan dapat digunakan untuk membandingkan sistem pendidikan antar negara di dunia. Hasil tes ini juga bisa menjadi indikator keberhasilan peningkatan kualitas tenaga guru. Figur 3. Perbandingan Hasil Tes PISA 2009+

Jika tes ini digunakan sebagai indikator kualitas sistem pendidikan suatu Negara, maka kualitas pendidikan Indonesia berada di bawah kualitas pendidikan Malaysia. Kebijakan sistem pendidikan di Malaysia, selain anggaran pendidikan yang juga lebih tinggi, menciptakan siswa dengan kemampuan yang lebih baik dari siswa Indonesia.
Menurut data dari UNESCO (2012) yang terdapat di figur 4, gross enrollment rate siswa tingkat 8 menunjukkan figur yang cukup tinggi untuk beberapa Negara berkembang yang dibandingkan. Namun, ketika siswa—yang menurut IEA (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement), tidak mempunyai “beberapa kemampuan mengolah angka, desimal, dan grafik” dikeluarkan dari perhitungan, gross enrollment rate menurun secara drastis untuk Malaysia, Indonesia, Filipina, dan Thailand, semua Negara berkembang yang mengikuti tes TIMSS. Lebih jauh lagi, jika siswa yang “tidak bisa menggunakan kemampuan dasar matematika dalam situasi langsung” dikeluarkan dari perhitungan, gross enrollment rate akan menurun lebih banyak lagi.

Figur 4. Gross Enrollment Rate yang telah Disesuaikan untuk melihat Kualitas Pendidikan

KESIMPULAN DAN PENUTUP
Efisiensi dan kualitas tenaga pendidik Indonesia terbilang masih rendah jika dibandingkan dengan beberapa Negara tetangga, seperti Malaysia. Usaha pemerintah untuk meningkatkan kualitas tenaga pendidik melalui kebijakan sertifikasi juga belum menunjukkan hasil yang memuaskan jika kualitas pendidikan ini diukur dengan tes penilaian siswa internasional seperti TIMSS dan PISA, karena hasilnya masih jauh dibawah tingkat yang memuaskan. Disarankan pemerintah mengkaji ulang kebijakan sertifikasi ini, misalnya dengan mengimplementasikan sistem upah berdasarkan-kinerja dan melakukan evaluasi berkelanjutan terhadap tenaga pendidik yang telah mendapat sertifikasi.
DAFTAR PUSTAKA

(Paper Utama);
Arze del Granado, F Javier, Wolfgang Fengler, Andy Ragatz, and Elif Yavuz. 2007. Investing in Indonesia’s Education: Allocation, Equity, and Efficiency of Public Expenditure. Policy Research Working Paper, 4329.

(Paper Pendukung);
Fahmi, Mohamad, Achmad Maulana, and Arief Anshory Yusuf. 2011.Teacher Certification in Indonesia: A Confusion of Means and Ends. Working Paper in Economics and Development Studies. Center for Economics and Development Studies (CEDS), Padjajaran University.

Suryahadi, Asep, and Prio Sambodho. Assessment of Public Policies to Improve Teacher Quality and Reduce Teacher Absenteeism (draft).The SMERU Research Institute. Jakarta, November 2012.

World Bank (2008). Teacher Employment and Deployment In Indonesia: Opportunities for Equity, Efficiency, and Quality Improvement.

Malaysia Ministry of Education (2012), Preliminary Report Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013-2025, September 2012.

UNESCO-World Bank (2012). Strengthening Education Quality in East Asia.

World Bank (2010). Transforming Indonesia’s Teaching Force Volume 1: Executive Summary. April 2010. Jakarta, Indonesia. Kementerian Keuangan Republik Indonesia, Data Pokok APBN 2006-2012. Available at: http://www.anggaran.depkeu.go.id/

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