...CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Background of the Study With limited sources of electricity in the Philippines, we discerned that this problem needs attention or better yet solved. At present, Mindanao today has been experiencing power shortage because of lack of hydroelectric energy for the power depends on the availability of Maria Cristina Falls’ water, which is also affected by weather conditions. In view of this, people from the place tend to find an alternative source of energy. We have found out that the fruit, santol (Sandoricum koetjape), contains citric acid that could produce electrical energy. At present, the Cottonfruit (Sandoricum koetjape) is an abundant fruit locally. Statement of the Problem The study aims to produce electrical energy with the use of an ordinary household Cottonfruit (Sandoricum koetjape) by making it as a battery. Specifically, it seeks to answer the following questions: 1. How much volume of Cottonfruit (Sandoricum koetjape) is needed to light a 5V bulb? 10V? 2. Are there other chemical contents of Cottonfruit (Sandoricum koetjape) that could create electrical energy aside from citric acid? If other citric fruits such as Orange (Citrus aurantium) and Calamansi (Citrofortunella microcarpa), could the product be more effective and conductive? Significance of the Study The study aimed to create electrical energy from Cottonfruit (Sandoricum koetjape) Typically; cottonfruit is a common fruit in the Philippines. The result of the study...
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...Introduction: This lab is destined to calculate the cell potential of different electrochemical cell. Electrochemical cells is very useful in everyday life. Thanks to them, we have batteries that powers our mobile phones, laptops and so on.. Electrochemical Cells are devices in which chemical energy released during a chemical reaction is converted into electrical energy . A typical cell might consist of two half cells. Each half-cell consists of cathode, electrode where reduction(gain of electrons) is happened, or anode in which oxidation(loss of electrons) is happened, and electrolyte, a solution containing the corresponding cation(metal) of the half-reaction. The electrode of the half-cells are connected by a wire along which the electrons flow. And two solutions are separated by a salt bridge. As long as electrode is dipped in its electrolyte, potential difference is developed at the metal solution interface. The potential difference between the two electrodes in a galvanic cell is called a cell potential or emf of the cell. Thus magnitude of the potential depends on the nature of metals...
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...Potato Powered Clock Theory: Potato as a Battery Hypothesis: Potatoes have starch in them which is a natural sugar that can be broken down naturally for a release of energy and generate enough power to run a digital clock. Problem Statement: Can ordinary potatoes power a digital clock for more than 24 hours? Variables: * Independent Variable – Potato * Dependent Variables – Clock, connection wires, copper and zinc plates Materials Needed: * Digital Clock with 2 Wires * 6.25” Connecting Wire * Transparent Tape * 2 4” Copper Strips * 2 4” Zinc Strips * 2 Potatoes (Oranges worked too) Background: How it works * A potato can be used as a battery by using strips of zinc and copper in the acidic juice of the potato to provide power to a digital clock. * With the zinc strip, the natural acid in the potato dissolves the zinc freeing electrons. * The copper wire uses the electrons that the zinc wire frees. * To obtain enough electrical current to power the clock, two potatoes must be used and they must be connected in a head-to-tail series. Steps: 1. Put potatoes into containers to stabilize them. 2. Insert Zinc strip from the clock into the left potato. 3. Insert Copper end of the loose strip into the same potato, 2 cm apart and parallel to the Zinc strip. 4. Insert Zinc end of the loose strip into the right potato. 5. Insert Copper strip from the clock into the same potato, 2 cm apart and parallel...
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...…III DISCUSSION……………………………………………………………………...…IV MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES…………………………………………….......V RESULTS………………………………………………………………………....….VI CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………….….….…VII BIBLIOGRPAHY………………………………………………………….….……VIII RESEARCH • The potato battery is a battery made out of a potato • The potato is unique because it is the only known vegetable that contains both electrons and protons. These two molecules are the second and third largest ingredients in electricity • By adding electricity’s most abundant ingredient-copper-and its fourth and final ingredient-zinc-a fresh batch of electricity can be made and extracted • A potato battery is an electrochemical battery, otherwise known as an electrochemical cell. • An electrochemical cell is a cell in which chemical energy is converted to electric energy by spontaneous electron transfer • The zinc in the nail reacts with the copper wire • The potato acts as a sort of buffer between the zinc ions and the copper ions • The zinc and copper ions would still react if they touched within the potato but they would only generate heat • Since the potatoes keep them apart, the electron transfer has to take place over the copper wires of the circuit, which channels the energy into the clock • Do not eat potatoes after they have been used as batteries I HYPOTHESIS I believe that when the potatoes are used with the other materials such as copper and zinc,...
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...product of the cell reaction. | | D. hydrogen gas (H2) is a product of the cell reaction. | | E. Cu is the anode. | | * Question 2 2 out of 2 points | | | A voltaic cell is prepared using copper and silver. Its cell notation is shown below. Cu(s) | Cu2+(aq) || Ag+(aq) | Ag(s) Which of the following processes occurs at the cathode? | | | | | Selected Answer: | A. Ag+(aq) + e– → Ag(s) | Answers: | A. Ag+(aq) + e– → Ag(s) | | B. Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e– | | C. Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) | | D. Ag(s) → Ag+(aq) + e– | | E. Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s) | | | | | * Question 3 2 out of 2 points | | | A voltaic cell prepared using aluminum and nickel has the following cell notation. Al(s) | Al3+(aq) || Ni2+(aq) | Ni(s) Which of the following reactions occurs at the anode? | | | | | Selected Answer: | A. Al(s) → Al3+(aq) + 3e– | Answers: | A. Al(s) → Al3+(aq) + 3e– | | B. Al3+(aq) + 3e → Al(s) | | C. Ni(s) → Ni2+(aq) + 2e– | | D. Ni2+(aq) + 2e– → Ni(s) | | E. none of the above | | | | | * Question 4 2 out of 2 points | | | A voltaic cell prepared using aluminum and nickel has the following cell notation. Al(s) | Al3+(aq) || Ni2+(aq) | Ni(s) Which of the following represents the correctly balanced spontaneous reaction equation for the cell? | | | | ...
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...Vinegar as a battery of Calculator Uba, Terrence L. Navarro, Loyd V. Ebabacol, Ruben S. Baa, Margaux Eve P. Ompoc, Shamira Jasmine C. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements in Research 1 Alubijid National Comprehensive High School Special Science Class Alubijid, Misamis Oriental January 8, 2014 Mrs. Ma. Romila D. Uy Research Adviser Abstract Battery is a device used to store electrical energy. Battery can also be called a cell in which the reaction between two different substances can be made to occur in such a way that some of the chemical energy is converted into a useful electricity. Since its invention and inception, battery has become the most common power source for many household and industries. The vinegar battery is constructed out from simple components or materials. Adding an amount of vinegar to a strip of different metals like copper, from copper wires and zinc, from nails can form a simple battery. This battery has a low amperage output which can supply power on a low amperage/low voltage device like a calculator. It is easy to construct. The following steps should be followed in constructing the vinegar battery: 1. Prepare all the materials needed like: * Vinegar * Strip of Zinc from nails * Strip of copper from copper wire * Vinegar container (non-metallic) * Multi-tester 2. Place the vinegar inside the container. Make sure that it is deep enough to suspend the two different metals on it. 3. Cut a piece of copper...
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...Photosynthesis and Solar cells In order for humans to live, as well as all living organisms, photosynthesis used by plants to create solar energy is essential. The way cells are created and regenerated is fascinating and we are still making new discoveries each and every day. A solar cell converts light energy from the sun directly into electricity. Plant cells contains chloroplasts and absorbs light energy from the Sun. Plant growth and development are driven by continuous generation of new cells. (Inze, D. &DeVeylder, L. The plant cycle Annu.Rev Plant Biology, 54 235-236, 2006). There are several similarities in both cells. ATP in common in both plant cells and solar cells. ATP synthase is a ubiquitous membrane enzyme that plays a key role in biological energy metabolism. This enzyme interconverts two major "energy currencies" of a living cell: adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and transmembrane electrochemical proton potential difference. ATP synthase is found in bacteria, plants, and animals. In most organisms the primary function of the enzyme is ATP synthesis from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. The energy needed for this process comes from the proton electrochemical potential difference generated by respiration or photosynthesis. (Boris A. Feniouk, 2002-2010) Photosynthesis is the process of converting light energy to chemical energy and storing it in the bonds of sugar. This process occurs in plants and some algae (Kingdom Protista). Plants...
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...Carrier Proteins and Active Membrane Transport The process by which a carrier protein transfers a solute molecule across the lipid bilayer resembles anenzyme-substrate reaction, and in many ways carriers behave like enzymes. In contrast to ordinary enzyme-substrate reactions, however, the transported solute is not covalently modified by the carrier protein, but instead is delivered unchanged to the other side of the membrane. Each type of carrier protein has one or more specific binding sites for its solute (substrate). It transfers the solute across the lipid bilayer by undergoing reversible conformational changes that alternately expose the solute-binding site first on one side of the membrane and then on the other. A schematic model of how such a carrier protein is thought to operate is shown in Figure 11-6. When the carrier is saturated (that is, when all solute-binding sites are occupied), the rate of transport is maximal. This rate, referred to as Vmax, is characteristic of the specific carrier and reflects the rate with which the carrier can flip between its two conformational states. In addition, each transporter protein has a characteristic binding constant for its solute,Km, equal to the concentration of solute when the transport rate is half its maximum value (Figure 11-7). As with enzymes, the binding of solute can be blocked specifically by either competitive inhibitors (which compete for the same binding site and may or may not be transported by the carrier) or noncompetitive...
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...Review Biology Test #1 Chapter 3: Water and life • Polar covalent bonds in water result in Hydrogen bonding between the molecules. These bonds give water its special properties • In presence of water, ionic bonds are weak and covalent bonds are strong. Without water, ionic bonds are stronger. • Each water molecule can make 4 hydrogen bonds. • Water properties: 1. Polarity 2. Surface tension 3. Cohesion 4. Adhesion 5. Capilarity 6. High specific heat 7. Heat bank 8. Heat of vaporization allows evaporation cooling. 9. Abundant and versatile solvent 10. Solid is less dense than liquid 11. It is a reactant and a product in many biological reactions (Photosynthesis, dehydration reaction, hydrolysis…) 12. It can ionize into H3O+ and OH- • When substances dissolve in water, water molecules form hydration shells by breaking their attractions to other water molecules and attracting to the solvate particles. • The dissociation of water molecules into Hydronium and hydroxide ions is a reversible reaction that occurs in a state of equilibrium (pure water). • The concentration of each ion in pure water is 10-7 M. [OH-][H3O+] = 10-14 M. This way, whenever we know the concentration of one ion, we can calculate the concentration of the other. • Adding acids and bases can change these concentrations of ions in water • When acids dissolve in water, they donate H+, increasing the concentration of hydrogen ions. This results in an acidic solution • When bases dissolve in water...
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...Biology 119, Spring 2015 Review sheet for Exam 1 The exam is worth 100 points total. It will consist of approximately 47 multiple-choice questions worth 2 point each and 3-4 short essay questions. Bring a scantron and pencil to the exam. The best way to study is to review the posted lecture notes. I suggest printing of a blank copy and filling them in referring to your book and notes as little as possible. Continue this process until you can fill them in without assistance. Exam 1 will cover chapters 1-3 and 6. 1. How long have microbes been on the planet? How has this affected the evolution of more complex species? a. Microorganisms are the foundation for all life on earth b. They have existed on this planet for about 3.5 billion years c. Over time plants, animals, and modern microorganisms evolved from them 2. Describe some of the negative impacts of microbes. d. Disease epidemics- an infectious disease that affects large numbers of people in a given area e. Chronic disease caused by bacteria i. Many disease once thought caused by environmental stressors actually caused by bacteria 1. Example: gastric ulcers a. Causative agent – Helicobacter pylori f. Examples: ii. Black Plague (Yersinia pestis bacterium)- killed 25 million Europeans between 1346-1350 iii. Influenza 1918-1919 killed more than all the wars combined iv. Cholera-vibrio cholerae ...
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...Hydrophobic substances can diffuse across membranes at a rate determined by their partition coefficient “K”, which is the equilibrium constant for how it partitions between oil and water Charged molecules require transport proteins. Their movement is related to both concentration gradient and the membrane potential. Together, these forces are called the electrochemical gradient. Transport proteins shield charges of the transported molecule from the lipid bilayer. 6 Pumps move ions or small molecules against an electrochemical gradient, uphill, via “Active Transport” 7 Ion channels move ions, H20 or small hydrophilic molecules downhill, or down the concentration/electrochemical gradient via “Facilitated Transport/Diffusion” Can be gated or nongated, based on regulation by signals Fast rates of transport Transporters move variety of ions and molecules via facilitated diffusion (A). Others couple molecule movement against a concentration gradient (uphill) with another molecule movement down its concentration gradient (B and C). 8 9 11.2 Uniport Transport of Glucose into Cells via...
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...stops cellular process is affected. All cells are burning up ATP. Carbon dioxide is building up in the cells and PH levels aren’t balanced. Glucose is needed to start the process for the glycolysis and oxygen is needed for mitochondria. Carbon dioxide is the byproduct and needs to be released. So the cells will begin to die and all transport pumps will come to a halt. Cells begin leaking, Na is leaking into cells and potassium is leaks out. The body’s cells will die if ATP cannot be sustained. C. Which Intracellular organelles have membranes included in their structure? How would the breakdown of the membranes of these structures affect the function of Joseph’s heart cells? Every intracellular organelle has membranes, with ATPase’s transferring calcium from the cytosol to the endoplasmic reticulum in cardiac muscle cells. Without the membrane the levels would just rise without channels in the membrane to regulate them causing an overload that would attack cytoskeleton. If the structure is broke down the hearts function is affected. Calcium and ATP will stop moving calcium from cytosol into ER of the heart muscle cells. The buildup of calcium causes protease to spill into the cells. The enzymes will bond inside vesicles and the plasma membrane will be digested. D. Two important pieces of information the instructions Joseph’s body needs to repair itself and his predisposition for vascular disease are both contained within the cell on which structures? Predisposition...
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...Mitchell, according to this hypothesis much of ATP synthesis in cell respiration would a "electrochemical gradient" comprising, on both sides, a kind of inner mitochondrial membrane. The event created and defended by Peter D. Mitchell was not well accepted in the academic world to address the issue of a "radical" as well. Several investigators believed there was a kind of intermediary responsible for the stabilization of the potential energy, such a theory can be classified as more conservative. However, to date, no stable intermediate track as we found. In addition, there are many facts related to Mitchell's theory is valid. So much so that in 1978 Peter Mitchell took the Nobel Prize in Chemistry with his "Theory Chemiosmotic". First phase: At this point, electrons - derived from the decomposition by oxidation of the sugars - which are loaded with energy begin to change places due to electron transport, held in the membrane. This displacement of electrons back and forth, over time the release of a large amount of energy, which in turn is used to protons are pumped through a membrane, generating what we call the beginning of this article, "electrochemical...
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...How substances cross the cell membrane. A cell’s membrane has many functions including forming a boundary in order to organise the contents and keep them separate from the extracellular environment. Yet in order for the cell to ‘live’ and perform its particular function, it needs to be able to take in substances and nutrients and to get rid of waste products. But with such a vast array of substances in the extracellular environment, it is a difficult task to control the influx and out-pouring of substances. There are several ways that this is accomplished and these are set out below. Cell, or plasma, membranes are formed from two layers of phospholipids which have a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail. This is known as the fluid mosaic model. It is this feature of membranes which makes them semipermeable and dictates how substances may cross them. Figure 1 shows a simplified structure of the cell membrane. Small, nonpolar molecules such as (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and nitrogen (N2) are able to diffuse passively across the membrane and do so down their concentration gradients or electrochemical gradients in the case of ions. However larger or charged molecules and ions require assistance of some type as they are too large or have a charge on them which prevents them crossing the hydrophobic interior of the membrane. In many cases a substance crosses the membrane with the assistance of membrane proteins, this is known as facilitated diffusion. Again...
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...13A – Cells and Movement of Materials P1: Describe the microstructure of a typical animal cell and the main function of the cells components The microstructure of a typical animal cell is made up of various components, all of which play a vital role within the body. Each component has its own specific role that it performs in order for the cell to function and maintains the cell membrane. The main components of the cell include the cell membrane, cytoplasm, the nucleus, nucleolus, nuclear membrane, endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER and rough ER), mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, ribosomes and vacuoles. The cell membrane – The cell membrane otherwise known as the plasma membrane is located on the surface of a typical animal cell. The cell membrane is made up of a phospholipid bilayer and is a selectively permeable membrane that allows substances to pass in and out of the cell. This selectively permeable membrane means that only water, gases and other nutrients are able to pass through whilst keeping toxins out. The lipid bilayer of the cell membrane aids in the protection of the cell, as it helps to control the movement of particles that pass in and out of the cell. The structure of the phospholipid is made up of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails. Cytoplasm – The cytoplasm is a gel-like substance that is clear in colour made up of 80% water and also contains enzymes, salts, organelles and other organic molecules. It consists of all the contents...
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