With the advent of male midwifery in the early modern period, women faded from medicine and obstetrics, especially in the cities (2). However, some women became established surgeons based on their reputation for kindness to the poor and their professional skills. When women performed medical services for charity, they were less likely to incur the enmity of men in the profession. In England, Elizabeth Bedell is reported to have “continually practiced surgery upon multitudes that flocked to her, and gratis, without respect of person.” After 1614, when the barber-surgeon charters became enforced, it became difficult for a woman to obtain a license to perform surgery (17th century). If a woman acted as a surgeon or doctor, she was liable to prosecution