What is an Essay? A discursive essay A discursive essay is a piece of formal writing which discusses a particular issue, situation or problem. There are three main types of discursive essays. For and against essays present both sides of an issue, discussing points in favour of a particular topic as well as those against, or the advantages and disadvantages of a particular question. Each point should be supported by justifications, examples, and/or reasons. The writer's own opinion should be presented only in the final paragraph ii Opinion essays present the writers personal opinion concerning the topic, clearly stated and supported by reasons and/or examples. The opposing viewpoint and reason should be included in a separate paragraph before the dosing one, together with an argument that shows it is an unconvincing viewpoint. The writer's opinion should be included in the introduction, and summarized/restated in the conclusion. iii Essays suggesting solutions to problems, in which the problem(s) associated with a particular issue or situation are analysed and possible solutions are put for-ward, together with any expected results/consequences. The writer's opinion may be mentioned, directly or indirectly, in the introduction and/or conclusion. A good discursive essay should consist of: a) an introductory paragraph in which you clearly state the topic to be discussed; b) a main body, in which points are clearly stated in separate paragraphs and exemplified or justified: and c) a closing paragraph summarising the main points of the essay, in which you stale/restate your opinion, and/or give a balanced consideration of the topic. Points to consider • Present each point in a separate paragraph. A welldeveloped paragraph contains a clear topic sentence, which summaries the contents of the paragraph, as well as a clear justification, explanation or example in support of the point presented. • Well-known quotations (e.g. As writer Somerset Maugham once said, 'It is bad enough to know the past; it would be intolerable to know the future."). rhetorical questions (e.g. It people today are not concerned enough about tomorrow, will the future still be there for man?) or thought-provoking statements (e.g. The fact is mat one's future is what one makes it. There Is no such thing as chance.) are useful devices to make your composition more interesting. • Before you begin writing, you should always make a list of the points you will present. • Do not use informal style (e.g. contracted forms, colloquial language, etc) or very strong language (e.g. I know. I am sure…) Use appropriate linking words/phrases to show the links between paragraph, as well as to link sentences within paragraphs. Topic sentence Many people, however, prefer living in flats because they feel safer. Justification With increasing crime rates, people are afraid to live in a house, as they feel more vulnerable to burglars and other criminals. Therefore, they prefer the feeing of security that the proximity of neighbouring flats offers them. Formal style • Discursive essays are written in formal style. This means you should use: -passive voice, impersonal constructions (e.g. It Is argued that It Is a common belief that…) - a range of advanced vocabulary (verbs, adjectives, abstract nouns, etc) (e.g. heated debate concerning the controversial issue…) -formal linking words/phrases (e.g. furthermore, however, nonetheless) - complex
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sentences with a variety of links, dependent clauses, etc (e.g. Although it is widely accepted that compulsory military service, which provides an army with abundant manpower, is beneficial to a country's ability to defend itself, closer analysis of military efficiency suggests that it is advanced weaponry which plays a crucial role in…) - inversion, especially in conditionals (e.g. Were this true, we would…; Never has this been more obvious…) You should not use. -short forms (e.g. I'm, It’s) except when these are part of a quotation -colloquial expressions, phrasal verbs, idioms (e.g. lots of, put up with, be over the moon about…) - simplistic vocabulary (e.g. Experts say they think this is bad….) - a series of short sentences (e.g. Many people think so. They are wrong.) - simple linking words (e.g. and, but, so) except for variety In the first paragraph, you should state the topic and/or your opinion, and you may include one or more of the following techniques. • Make reference to an unusual or striking idea/scene/situation e.g. Imagine millions of people coming home from school or work every day to sit staring at a wall for four hours. • Address the reader directly e.g. You may think this is an exaggeration. and/or ask a rhetorical question. e.g. Have you ever wondered what the world would be like without cars? • Start with a quotation or thought-provoking statement, e.g. "Television is an invention that permits you to be entertained in your living room by people you wouldn't have in your home." David Frost once said. In the last paragraph, you should state your opinion and/or give a balanced consideration of the topic, and you may include one or more of the following techniques. • Finish with a quotation • Ask a rhetorical question • Give the reader something to consider e.g. Perhaps then people will re-discover what It is like to actually communicate with each other. Useful Tips for Discursive Essays • When writing a discursive essay, you should: - use formal, impersonal style (see Formal Style) - use topic sentences to introduce the subject of each paragraph - write well-developed paragraphs, giving reasons/examples - use generalisations (e.g.ln most developed countries, education…) - use sequencing (e.g. First/ly, Second/ly, etc) and linking words/phrases (e.g. however, although, etc) - make references to other sources (e.g. Experts have proved that…) - use quotations, either word-for-word or in paraphrase, being careful to identify the source (e.g. As Winston Churchill said,”…) • You should not: -use short forms, informal/colloquial language, etc (see Formal Style) - use very emotional language (e.g. I absolutely detest people who…) - express personal opinions too strongly (e.g. I know…); instead, use milder expressions (e.g. It seems to me that…) - use over-generalisation (e.g. All politicians are…) - refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source (e.g. "A recent study showed…" which study?) - use cliches (e.g. Rome was not built in a day.) - use personal examples (e.g. In my school…) Works consulted Taken from "Successful Writing Proficiency" by Virginia Evans

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Linking Words And Phrases In my opinion/view, To my mind, To my way of thinking, I am convinced that, It strikes me that, It is my firm belief that, I am Personal inclined to believe that, It seems to me that. As far as I am opinion: concerned, I think that the economic recession of the previous decade was foreseeable. One advantage of, Another advantage of, One other advantage of, A To list further advantage of, The main advantage of, The greatest advantage advantages and of. The first advantage of riding a motorbike in a large disadvantages: metropolis is that of not getting caught in major congestion. Firstly, First of all, In the first place, Secondly, Thirdly, Finally. To To list points: start/begin with, we have to address the inadequacies within the education system before we can tackle unemployment fully. What is more, Furthermore, Apart from this/that, In addition (to this), Moreover, Besides (this),… not to mention the fact that your choice To add more of career is a fundamental decision which will influence the rest of points to the your life. Not only is your choice of career a fundamental decision, same topic: but it is also one that will influence the rest of your life.Your choice of career is both a fundamental decision and something that will influence the rest of your life. To refer to With reference to, According to the latest scientific research, the use other sources: of mobile phones can be damaging to one's health in the long run. To emphasise a Indeed, Naturally, Clearly, Obviously, Of course, Needless to say, point: the scheme was hound to fail due to insufficient funds. For instance, For example, by establishing day-care centres across the country, working mothers can he encouraged to resume their To give careers. By providing incentives such as, like day-care centres examples: working mothers are encouraged to resume their careers. If working mothers are to resume their careers then the provision of incentives particularly, in particular, especially day-care centres is essential. It is popularly believed that, People often claim that, It is often To state other alleged that, Some people argue that, Many argue that, Most people people's feel that, Some people point out that wealth will bring happiness. opinion: Contrary to popular belief, wealth does not necessarily bring happiness. Finally, Lastly, All in all, Taking everything into account/consideration, On the whole, All things considered, In To conclude: conclusion, On balance, For the above mentioned reasons, Therefore I feel that, To sum up, it is unlikely that there will be peace in all the countries of the world concurrently. In short, Briefly. To put it briefly, his performance on stage was Summarising: fantastic! Works consulted Taken from "Successful Writing Proficiency" by Virginia Evans
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Opinion Essays Opinion Essays An opinion essay is a formal piece of writing. It requires your opinion on a topic, which must be stated clearly, giving various viewpoints on the topic supported by reasons and/or examples. You should also include the opposing viewpoint in another paragraph. A successful opinion essay should have: a) an introductory paragraph in which you state the topic and your opinion. b) a main body which consists of several paragraphs, each presenting a separate viewpoint supported by reasons. You also include a paragraph presenting the opposing viewpoint and reason why you think it is an unconvincing viewpoint; and a c) conclusion in which you restate your opinion using different words. Introduction Paragraph 1 state the topic and yo opinion clearly Main Body Paragraph 2 viewpoint 1 & reason, example Paragraph 3 viewpoint 2 & reason, example Paragraph 4 viewpoint 3 & reason/ example* Paragraph 5 opposing viewpoint & reason/example* Conclusion Final paragraph summarise/restate opinion You may include more viewpoints, and thus more paragraphs in the main body. Points to consider • Decide whether you agree or disagree with the subject of the topic, then make a list of your viewpoints and reasons. • Write well-developed paragraphs, joining the sentences with appropriate linking words and phrases. Do not forget to start each paragraph with a topic sentence which summarises what the paragraph is about. • Linking words and phrases should also be used to join one paragraph with the other. Essays Suggesting Solutions To Problems Essays suggesting solutions to problems, in which the problem(s) associated with a particular issue or situation are analysed and possible solutions are put forward, together with any expected results/consequences. The writer's opinion may be mentioned, directly or indirectly, in the introduction and/or conclusion. An essay discussing problems and suggesting solutions is a formal piece of writing. You should state the problem and its causes clearly, then present your suggestions and the expected results or consequences these might have A successful essay of this type should consist of: a) an introductory paragraph in which you clearly state the problem, what has caused it, and the consequences. b) a main body in which you present several suggested solutions, each in a separate paragraph together with its consequences/results and c) a conclusion in which you summarise your opinion. Points to consider • Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence which summarises what the paragraph is about. • Appropriate linking words and phrases should be used to show the connection between paragraphs as well as to link sentences within a paragraph. • Use the techniques given in Beginning and ending discursive essays Useful Language • To express cause: since/because, in view of/because of/owing to/ due to (the fact that)…, The reason that …/why …/for… is that…
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To express effect: thus/therefore/so/consequently, as a result/consequence, the result of … would be …, … would result in … To express purpose: so that…, so as/in order (not) to …, with the purpose of/intention of (+ing) To express possibility/probability: It can/could/may/might…, It is possible/probable/(un)likely/foreseeable/certain that…, … is (un) likely to/bound to/certain to/ possible/probable…, The likelihood/possibility/probability of (ing/noun) is…
Introduction Paragraph 1 state the problem and its cause(s)/consequence(s) Main Body Paragraph 2 suggestion 1 & result Paragraph 3 suggestion 2 & result Paragraph 4 suggestion 3 & result Paragraph 5 suggestion 4 & result* Conclusion Final Paragraph summarise your opinion You may include more suggestions, and thus more paragraphs in the main body

Common Essay Mistakes Using colloquial language You should not use: -short forms (e.g. I'm, It’s) except when these are part of a quotation -colloquial expressions, phrasal verbs, idioms (e.g. lots of, put up with, be over the moon about…) - simplistic vocabulary (e.g. Experts say they think this is bad….) - a series of short sentences (e.g. Many people think so. They are wrong.) - simple linking words (e.g. and, but, so) except for variety - use very emotional language (e.g. I absolutely detest people who…) express personal opinions too strongly (e.g. I know…); instead, use milder expressions (e.g. It seems to me that…) - use over-generalisation (e.g. All politicians are…) - refer blindly to statistics without accurate reference to their source (e.g. "A recent study showed…" - which study?) - use cliches (e.g. Rome was not built in a day.) - use personal examples (e.g. In my school…) Works consulted "Successful Writing Proficiency" by Virginia Evans For and against essays A "for and against" essay is a formal piece of writing in which a topic is considered from opposing points of view. You should present both sides in a fair way by discussing them objectively and in equal detail. A good essay of this type should consist of: a) an introductory paragraph in which you clearly state the topic to be discussed, without giving your opinion; b) a main body in which the points for and against along with your justifications, examples or reasons are presented in separate paragraphs; and c) a closing paragraph in which you state your opinion or give a balanced consid¬eration of the topic. Note: Opinion words (I think, I believe, In my opinion, etc.) can only be used in the closing paragraph where you give your opinion on the topic. Points to consider • Before you start writing your essay you should make a list of the points for and against. • Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence which summarises the topic of the paragraph. e.g. In addition, many people feel reading is a relaxing and
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worthwhile activity. • Do not use informal style (e.g. short forms, colloquial language, etc.) or strong language to express your opinion (e.g. I know…, etc.). Express your opinion in a non-emotional way (e.g. It seems that, I therefore feel, etc.). • Well-known quotations relevant to the topic you are writing about will make your composition more interesting. For example, if you are writing an essay on education, a quotation you may include is: "Education is a progressive discovery of our own ignorance." (Will Durant) Note: Although these are "balanced" arguments, if you feel that either the for or against side is stronger and should be supported, this side should be presented in paragraphs 4 & 5, thus leading the reader to your conclusion. Introduction Paragraph 1 state topic (summary of the topic without giving your opinion) Main Body Paragraphs 2 & 3 arguments for & justifi¬cations, examples, and/ or reasons Paragraphs 4 & 5 arguments against & justification, examples, and/or reasons Conclusion Final Paragraph balanced consideration/ your opinion directly or indirectly Useful expressions and linking words/phrases • To list points: Firstly, First of all, In the first place, To begin/start with, Secondly, Thirdly, Finally • To list advantages: One/Another/A further/An additional (major) advantage of… is … The main/greatest/first advantage of… is … • To list disadvantages: One/Another/ A further/An additional (major) disadvantage/drawback of. The main/greatest/most serious/first disadvantage /drawback of… Another negative aspect of… • To introduce points/arguments for or against: One (very convincing) point/argument in favour of… / against, A further common criticism of… / It could be argued that….. often claimed/suggested It is widely argued maintained that….. generally felt/believed/held Some/many/most people/experts/scientist/skeptics/critics claim/suggest/argue/feel that… maintain/believe/point out/agree/hold that… advocate (+ing/noun)/support the view that… oppose the view that… are in favour of/against… are of the opinion that/convinced that… are opposed to… • To add more points to the same topic: in addition (to this), furthermore, moreover, besides, apart from, what is more, as well as, not to mention (the fact) that, also, not only … but also/as well, both … and, There is another side to the issue/question/argument of… • To make contrasting points: on the other hand, however, still, yet, but, nonetheless, nevertheless, even so, it may be said/argued/claimed that,… others/many people oppose this viewpoint/strongly disagree…, claim/feel/believe this argument is incorrect/misguided although, though, even though, while, whilst, whereas, despite/in spite of (the fact that), regardless of the fact that Opponents of … argue/believe/claim that… The fact that… contradicts the belief/idea that… While it is true to say that…, in fact… While/Although …, it cannot be denied that… Useful expressions and linking words/phrases • To introduce examples: for example, for instance, such as, like, in particular, particularly, especially, This is (clearly) illustrated/shown by the fact that… One/A clear/striking/ typical example of (this)… The fact that…. shows/illustrates that… • To emphasise a point: clearly, obviously, it is obvious, naturally, of course, needless to say, indeed • To express
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reality: In fact, the fact (of the matter) is, actually, in practice, it is a fact that, in effect • To make general statements: as a (general) rule, generally, in general, on the whole, by and large, in most cases • To make partially correct statements: to a certain extent/degree, to some extent/degree, in a way/sense, this is partly true (but), to a limited extent, there is some truth in (this), in some cases, up to a point • To explain/clarify a point: in other words, that is to say, this/which means that • To express cause: owing to, due to (the fact that), on account of, on the grounds that, given that, because, as, since • To express effect: therefore, thus, as a result/consequence, consequently, so, for this reason, if… were to happen, … the effect/result would be… • To express intention: to, so as to, in order to, so that, with the intention of (+ing) Useful expressions and linking words/phrases: Conclusion expressing balanced considerations/opinion indirectly In conclusion, On balance, All things considered, Taking everything into account/consideration, To conclude, To sum up, All in all, Finally/Lastly, ……………………. it can be said/claimed that … ……………………. it seems/appears that… ……………………. it would seem that… ……………………. it is likely/unlikely/possible/foreseeable that … ……………………. it is clear/obvious that… …………………….. there is no/little doubt that … …………………….. it is true to say that … …………………….. although it must be said that … ……………………. it may be concluded/said that … Useful expressions and linking words/phrases: Conclusion expressing opinion directly In conclusion, On balance, All things considered, Taking everything into account/consideration, To conclude, To sum up, All in all, …………………………… it is my belief/opinion that … ………………………….. I (firmly) believe/feel/think that … …………………………… I am convinced that … …………………………… I am inclined to believe that … …………………………… I (do not) agree that/with ... NOTE
1. A for and against essay can end in a balanced consideration in which you restate that there are points for and against the topic using appropriate expressions given above. 2. Alternatevely, it can end by expressing an opinion, in which case you state, directly or indirectly, that you are either in favour of or against the topic, using appropriate expressions given above.

9 Read the conclusions below and say whether they express a balanced consideration, or the writer's opinion directly/indirectly. 1 To conclude, although it must be said that a sense of responsibility is one of the most important qualities which can be instilled in young people, it should not be forgotten that there are other, equally important qualities. 2 For the above-mentioned reasons, therefore, I firmly believe that if people are taught a keen sense of responsibility towards themselves and others, then they will have the best possible start in life. The way I see it, taking full responsibility for one's own actions is central to leading an honest life. 3 To sum up, it would seem that, once young people know how to take responsibility for their actions, they are better equipped to learn about life. While there are other important qualities, a highly-developed sense of responsibility provides the ideal foun¬dation for personal development. 4 On balance, it seems that a sense of responsibility has a
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role to play in a young person's development. Never¬theless, when placed alongside other human qualities, such as honesty and integrity, it is by no means the most useful. 10 Read the main body of the for and against essay below on the topic: "Discuss the view that advertising promotes excessive consumerism." Then read the beginnings and endings and say which of the techniques on p. 56 has been used in each one. Finally, replace the bold type words or phrases in the main body with ones similar in meaning. Beginning… 1. Whether it is on TV, radio or hoardings at the side of the road, advertisements have become a part of our lives, advertising simply a means of informing the public or does it encourage consumers to purchase products they do not really need? 2. Advertising is a powerful and persuasive medium. You may feel this is an intrusion in your daily life, and resent the pressure on you to spend money. Others, however, enjoy the variety which this highly creative industry brings to everyday life. 3. Advertising is an effective way of selling new products, and many people argue that its effectiveness brainwashes us into unnecessary spending. Others, however, disagree. As Jeremy Tunstall says, "Advertising can't sell any product can only help to sell a product the people want to buy." One of the main arguments for advertising is that it generates wealth for a country. That is to say, taxes paid on goods sold, help governments to pay for essential services such as education and health care. Moreover, the number of jobs created for pro¬ducing, marketing and servicing these goods helps to reduce the unemployment problem, which is also a great advantage for a country's economy. What is more, advertising raises money for a huge number of sporting events and artistic perfor¬mances which would otherwise not be held. Without sponsorship from companies who advertise their products, these events would disappear due to lack of funding. In other words, although consumerism is promoted through advertising, it is beneficial to both the consumer and society. On the other hand, advertisements can cause people to be dissatisfied with what they already have, and make them want more. Being exposed again and again to products which one cannot afford produces frustration and dissatisfaction. Further more, not all parents are in a position to afford the goods which their children see advertised and want to possess. This often leads to feelings of inadequacy, especially among the less welloff. In addition to this, advertising creates materialism and causes people to place too much importance or material goods. The fact that people are prepared to work long hours, or even turn to crime in order to gain the goods on offer, shows that advertising persuade; people to go to great lengths to keep the same standard of living as those they see around them. It is a fact, though, that neither crime nor the stress caused by overwork can benefit society. Endings…. A To sum up, it is true to say that advertising does provide some benefits. However, do you not agree that the drawbacks of a greedy, materialistic society far outweigh the advantages, and we need to be careful that we do not lose sight of what is most important - a spirit of co-operation rather than competition? B To conclude, it must be said that, while advertising may create jealousy and inequality in society, without it v would lose a valuable source of revenue which is used for the benefit of the majority. What would our lives be like without
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advertisements? C In conclusion, I believe that advertising exists to generate wealth by encouraging people to spend unnecessarily. It fosters greed and breeds dissatisfaction while distracting us from focusing on more vital things. As Marion Harper Jr said, "Advertising is found in societies which have passed the point of satisfying the basic animal needs." 11 Read the four topic sentences below and match each with the corresponding paragraph. Does each topic sentence adequately summarise the argument it presents? What would a suitable introduction and con¬clusion be for this essay? "Living in a foreign country cannot be better man living in your own.” Discuss. a Furthermore, people who move to a foreign country may be regarded with suspicion and treated unfairly. b On the other hand, living abroad can be a way to escape a variety of problems presented in one's country of birth. c. One argument in favour of saying in one`s native country is that the problems of adapting to a new way of life cannot always be overcome. d. Finally, it may be said that by living in a foreign country, people are able to establish a greater understanding between nations. 1. ………………………………………………………………………………………… The fact of the matter is that, even in cases where the language is the same, there are other changes, such as cultural differences, which an out¬sider might find difficult to adjust to. Even the weather can force some people to return to their country of origin. For example, take an Inuit and an Amazonian Indian. They would almost certainly find it impossi¬ble to adapt to the extreme climates of each other's native homes. 2. ………………………………………………………………………………………… In countries with a large number of immigrants there are often social problems, and immigrants stand out as being "different" and even in¬ferior. As a consequence, the host country may react in a variety of ways, from open hostility and racism to depriving the immigrants of the right to equal pay. 3. ………………………………………………………………………………………… For example, war, political or religious intolerance, and natural ca¬tastrophes are among the reasons for people seeking a new home in a foreign land. In such cases, people are often able to start a new life abroad with greater freedom and a higher standard of living. 4. ………………………………………………………………………………………… That is to say, by working and living among foreigners, some of the bar¬riers between countries can be broken down, helping to create a more peaceful world. Needless to say, better diplomatic relations would be of benefit to all. 12 Which of the following are arguments in favour and which are arguments against the topic: "School plays a more important role than die family in shaping one's personality." Discuss. Suggest examples/justification for each argument. Finally, write the composition in about 350 words. 1. Moreover, so much of the school day is devoted to competition and prepa¬ration for examinations that there is little time left for personality develop¬ment. 2. On the other hand, most children have a closer relationship with
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their parents than with their teachers. 3. An additional argument in support of school is that young people are exposed to a wide variety of subjects. 4. One point in favour of the role of schools is that it is at school where chil¬dren first learn to socialise. 5. Furthermore, children usually spend five years of their lives at home before they even go to school. 6. What is more, the average child spends as many as eight hours a day in school. PLANNING & ORGANISATION • There is an alternative paragraph plan you may use when writing for and against essays. When following this plan you present both an argument in favour and the opposing viewpoint in the same paragraph. In such essays the arguments for and against must be equal in number. Introduction Paragraph 1 State topic (summary of topic without stating your opinion) Main Body Paragraph 2 first argument for & against Paragraph 3* second argument for & against Conclusion Final Paragraph give balanced consideration/ your opinion expressed directly/indirectly 13 "Greater freedom does not necessarily lead to greater happiness” Discuss. Read the model and say which argu¬ments have been presented in each paragraph. Do the topic sentences clearly summarise the content of each paragraph? Finally, underline all the useful expressions and linking words or phrases and replace them with ones similar in meaning. Over the years, mankind has recognised the need for personal and social freedom, and this is perhaps one of the m important social advancements ever made. However, whether it has led to increased personal happiness is highly debatable; many people would argue that greater freedom has led to increased social disorder and personal dissatisfaction. Firstly, it is true that people are now more at liberty to choose how to live their lives. For example, in the Western world at least, the choice of where to live, what career to pursue and which religion to follow has never been greater. In addition to this people have more leisure time in which to enjoy a wider range of recreational activities. On the other hand, it r be argued that this increased freedom can lead people to take things for granted and expect too much from life. As an example of this, the greater choice of material goods available has resulted in people quickly growing bored with t possessions. Consequently, no sooner have they acquired something new than they tire of it. They find short-term happiness in material goods and entertainment, but boredom and frustration soon send them looking for fresh distractions. Secondly, social and moral attitudes have become less rigid. This has allowed for a greater variety of lifestyles and n freedom in human relations. This is illustrated by the fact that pupils and teachers now treat each other as equals, and parent-child relationships are now much more relaxed. Nevertheless, some people believe that this increase in free has resulted in the escalation of social problems. They argue that the current lack of discipline has given rise to a breakdown in the traditional family and the decay in educational standards as well as the rise in juvenile delinquency. Thus, it may be said that society is becoming more and more dangerous because of the very fact that people are more open-minded than they were in the past. To conclude, there is evidence both to support and refute the view that greater freedom does not necessarily le: greater happiness. On the one hand, people have more opportunities to raise their standard of living. On the other hand, the many
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examples of protests, strikes and criminal activities which are a feature of modern society are a sign that, although people may be free, they are not necessarily happier. 14 Read the following arguments and match each argument in favour of using animals for entertainment with the corresponding argument against. Then, following the paragraph plan (the second one), say which arguments you would include in each paragraph. Finally, write a clear topic sentence for each paragraph. Arguments for using animals for entertainment. 1. Zoos can be educational and also help to increase the numbers of endangered species through controlled breeding programmes. 2. Animals used in television programmes, advertisements and films are very appealing and attract large audiences. 3. Circus animals are loved, well-treated and only perform for short periods. 4. Racing animals have a very short working life and are well-treated throughout. Arguments against using animals for entertainment. a Animals are forced to perform unnatural acts for the pleasure of the pub¬lic. b Keeping animals in cages so the public can see them is unnecessary because documentaries produced today take away the need for such places. c With new technology and special effects, there is no need to use live ani¬mals as realistic models can be used instead. d Racing animals have gruelling training schedules and are often placed in unnecessary danger. DISCUSS and WRITE The discussion clock • When considering a topic you may refer to the discussion clock, which will help you think of ideas when planning your essay. • Referring to the discussion clock is a useful “brainstorming” technique, as it helps you examine a topic from various viewpoints and decide on ideas/points to include in your essay. • Keep in mind that a topic may not relate to all the aspects presented in the discussion clock. • Remember that for each viewpoint you have thought of, there is usually an opposing argument. Think of the opposing arguments when planning your essay. 12-psycholoical 1-religious 2-scientific 3-artistic 4-economic 5-educational 6social 7-political 8-moral 9-historical 10-health 11-personal 15 Read the following composition topic and answer the questions below. "Should countries encourage tourism?" Discuss. • What are the two sides of the question? • Which of the following arguments are for and which against? 1. The desire to attract tourists to a certain area often encourages govern-ments to improve local facilities. 2. Over-development leads to ugly, crowded tourist spots and environ¬mental damage. 3. The impact of tourism may destroy the local way of life. 4. Many people claim that tourism is an important source of income. 5. A country's economy may become so dependent on tourism that it is weak¬ened. 6. Tourism allows people to experience other cultures. • What aspects of the discussion clock do these arguments deal with? • Can you think of any additional argu¬ments? • Which paragraph plan would you fol¬low to write this essay? • Which arguments would you include and in what order? • Which techniques would you use to begin and end your essay? • Which useful phrases and linking words could you use? 16 Now, using the information from your answers to the above questions, write
11

the essay in about 350 words.
Works consulted Taken from "Successful Writing Proficiency" by Virginia Evans

Essay opinion - although... someone who... in order to... means that... which would... Ideas are coherently presented by using transition words (Firstly,... For example,... In addition to this,... However, .... In my opinion,... To conclude,...).. It is important in IELTS essays to have good topic related vocabulary (reoffend... rehabilitate... re-educated... deterrent... committing a crime...).. - to vary your word choices and do not repeat the same word (synonyms) -have a clear thesis in the second sentence of the introduction, establishing that two sides of this issue will be discussed (While some people are of the opinion...others think that...). Looking at the structure, the topic sentences make it clear when the first opinion is being discussed (It is certainly true that one of the main aims of university is to secure a better job.) and when the writer is moving onto the next opinion (However, there are other benefits for individuals and society.). Connectors (To begin... Also... Firstly... Secondly) are used well to introduce each new supporting idea. Further connectors (For example...A case in point is that...As a result...) are used to expand on these ideas. - use complex sentence structures (While...that...in order to...as...), and has discussed both views and combined this with his/her opinion
Advantages - Food Additives Essay Most foods that are purchased these days in small stores and supermarkets have chemicals in them as these are used to improve production and ensure the food lasts for longer. However, there are concerns that these have harmful effects. In my opinion, the potential dangers from this are greater than the benefits we receive. There are several reasons why chemicals are placed in food. Firstly, it is to improve the product to the eye, and this is achieved via the use of colourings which encourage people to purchase food that may otherwise not look tempting to eat. Another reason is to preserve the food. Much of the food we eat would not actually last that long if it were not for chemicals they contain, so again this is an advantage to the companies that sell food as their products have a longer shelf life. From this evidence, it is clear to me that the main benefits are, therefore, to the companies and not to the customer. Although companies claim these food additives are safe and they have research to support this, the research is quite possibly biased as it comes from their own companies or people with connections to these companies. It is common to read reports these days in the press about possible links to various health issues such as cancer. Food additives have also been linked to problems such as hyperactivity in children. To conclude, despite the fact that there are benefits to placing chemicals in food, I believe that these principally help the companies but could be a danger to the public. It is unlikely that this practice can be stopped, so food must be clearly labeled and it is my hope that organic products will become more readily available at reasonable prices to all.

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