FINAL ESSAY Your name Course Name Date

1. Describe the major hormonal changes that occur during adolescence. Describe girls’ reactions to menarche and boys’ reactions to spermarche during puberty. What factors influence the way adolescents respond? Describe the impact of puberty on parent–child interaction and the adaptive value of this change in adolescents’ relationships with their parents.
Hormonal change is at its peak during adolescence and is a period of rapid psychological and physiological transformation. During puberty boys and girls sweat and their oil glands become more active. This will result in body odour and acne. They also get underarm and pubic hair in the body. The brain releases Gonadotropin – releasing hormone (GnRH) for stimulating pituitary gland. Pituitary gland is also known as the Master gland releases luteinizing hormones and follicle stimulating hormone. In boys, interstitial cell stimulating hormone and it stimulates interstitial cells to produce to from hormones in male organ of testicles. Both male and females have estrogens and androgen in their body in low level and after puberty, males begin to have more androgen including testosterone. In female they get more oestrogen as puberty crosses.
Menarche is the first menstrual bleeding in a girl and her reaction to this event can be both emotional and physical. It is a sign of growing up and happens between the age of 9 and 15 years. The girls usually show stress, irritability and anxiety during menarche. The surge of hormones can make them short tempered and restless and can make them more sensitive during this age. Girls during menarche also face stomach ache, breath tenderness, nausea and bloating which can make them ill and weak. As per ( Sharma,2013,pg.346-50) “Despite the fact that most of the girls suffer from physical ailments associated with menstruation, along with these they were also confronted with some psychological problems like irritability, stress, anxiety”.

Spermarche is the beginning of the development of sperm in the testicles of boys during puberty. This is a response to the formation of many hormones in their body. The reaction to boys to spermarche can differ according to their culture, upbringing and sexual knowledge. It can range from anxiety to fear. It is the first sign of sexual maturity in a male child. Majority of the men feel positive during spermarche. Some boys react to spermarche with negative feeling, shame and stress. They also feel a change in their self – identity after spermarche. The first ejaculation for boys can be a thrilling and new experience which can change their attitude to sex, life and relationships. The adolescence is a sensitive stage in life and the way respond is influenced by hormones, their physical growth, culture, their upbringing and knowledge level.

As a child cross to puberty their mental level and reaction to people and life will change. They are getting mature and this can create change in their interaction with parents. More often during puberty children has conflicts with parents and have less warm interaction with them. Children at this stage get more close to their friends and may need more space and privacy from parents. They may find difficult to agree too many ideas and conceptions of their parents and argue with them more often. You may feel that it is stressful to adapt with their parents as their approach to life is different from theirs due to age and cultural differences.

2. Summarize the specific mechanisms of cognitive change, as described by the information-processing view of cognitive development. Describe a teenager’s new cognitive capacities, and explain how adults can handle the consequences of distorted thinking.

Cognitive mechanism is the way the brain function in a person which creates identity and self awareness in a person. The cognitive mechanism in a person depends on the information processing in a person. The cognitive mechanism in a person can change during his life cycle and varies from person to person. The cognition of a person is based on his sensory input and motor control. Cognitive changes both in structure and patterns and can depend upon the perception, the capacity to think reason and process information changes from childhood to old age. Cognitive changes can change as children crossed puberty and process information with more reasoning and logic. During adolescence, people think about the thinking process itself. They may start becoming more self – conscious and advance intellectually. They develop eco –centric behavior and have intense pre – occupation about themselves. They usually evaluate and analyze information and become multi – dimensional in thinking. In adolescence, people are more complex in their thinking as cog native mechanism is getting progressed stage by stage. The information accessed and processed can be used only according to the cognitive functioning of the person. The information is processes by body according to logical rules set by the body. The information enters brain through sensory input and is encoded and stored in short or long – term memory. The intensity level applied to the information decided the location of its storage. However, the basic structure of information processing does not change as people develop.

The development instead depends on the efficiency with which the information is processed .The cognitive function during adolescence change because they perceive things different and their capacity to store information improves after puberty. The procure many capacities like prospective memory strategies and semantic organization in the adolescence. Their categorization and hierarchical relationship to process relationship to process and store information use semantic organization as they grow. They also get elaboration skill that means information enhancement which makes it richer in meaning so that it becomes easier to remember. As per ( Katherine,2000) “The fact that elaboration improves recall, despite the increase in informational load that it involves, underlines the importance of meaning in memory”.
In teenage children have more Meta – cognition, developed advanced and reasoning skill, and abstract thinking skill. The way the adult handle the consequences of distortive thinking depends on the nature of the person. The consequences can be handled with more logic and common sense. They can accept that the distortive thinking is an outcome of changing age and needs to remain more calm and composed. The adults are matured and take things more lightly and make their children understand about things more clearly. The adult confront the changes in behavior and react to them with a friendly note. However some adults do become aggressive and violent to the consequences of distortive thinking. Some are hostile and emotional and many become argumentative towards such situations. Adults mostly deal with such situation in an intelligent way because they understand such thinking is the growing process of children.

3. Describe gender differences in adolescent friendships. Describe the functions that cliques and crowds serve, and explain the factors that cause the importance of crowds to decline over time. Summarize research on peer conformity, noting factors related to peer pressure.

During adolescence, the friendship preference changes highly due to the psychological and physiological transitions. All males and females share friendship among their gender during adolescence. They may have friendship with other gender but not very common. It is seen that male have a larger peer network than their female counterparts. The level of intimacy in male and female also differ when it comes to their friendship. It is seen that female friendship are more intimate than male friendships. As per ( Pauriyal,2011.pg.510-11) “Girls in friendship share closer bond than boys”. In friendship cliques and crowds has a definite function. Cliques are small groups of people which can be in a number of 2 to 12 who can become peers. They have common activities in friendship. Clique promotes the intimacy and closeness of friends. Many children in school and colleges are in cliques. It is found that girls are in cliques more than boys. Boys are isolated than girls. However crowds are different than cliques as they are groups which are large that is defined by stereotypes and reputation. The function of crowd is to identify inviduals according to the social structure of the social structure of the school or college.This channel the association of the friends as they look for certain lifestyle and rewards in these relationships. Adolescence often inflates the positive quality and exaggerates the negative side of their crowds.

Crowd membership gives a self identity and self conception among teenagers. It contributes highly to their social development. During adolescence the clique and crowd activities centre on same sex activities. The clique leader tends to interact with opposite sex in later stages. During middle adolescence, middle sex – cliques are more seen. As time progresses same – sex cliques to mixed sex couples progresses the intimacy of friendship. As they enter late adolescence, crowd structure takes a less rigid form and they become less defined by crowds. The peer pressure is seen to be more persistent around the age of 13 and 14 years of age. The crowd and clique have more prominence in adulthood due to the individual’s lack of ability to perceive one.
In adolescence stage, peers conformity and peer pressure is common. When large group of people share common beliefs and opinion it can termed as peer conformity. In peer conformity, friends go along with the wishes and of their peers. Peer conformity can be a reason for peer pressure. Many people find it difficult to neglect the wishes and desires of their peers and hence end up doing things which they may feel hesitant to do. Peer pressure is a negative manifestation of peer conformity. Peer conformity can have good and bad effect on people and peer pressure often result in negative acts. For example, peer conformity can be a reason for drug abuse, alcohol consumption, sexual assault and violence among teenagers.

4.Discuss some preventative measures adults can take to avoid or slow the progress of cardiovascular disease. Explain the combined gender–racial bias that is especially dangerous for African-American women with heart disease.
Cardiovascular problems are seen among many adults in all parts of the world. Cardiovascular problems are more influenced by environment, lifestyle and diet rather than genetics. The adults need to take many measures to prevent or reduces the chances of cardiovascular diseases. First thing is to avoid smoking which is a cardiovascular disease trigger. The adults also need to minimize the consumption of alcohol and excess alcohol is ideal for cardio health. The main thing is to have a control on diet. As cholesterol is the main cause of heart attack and other cardiovascular problems a person need to consume less meat based products, dietary products and oil dense food and eggs. An adult should include more fresh fruits, vegetables, grains and nuts in their diet.
Preventing cardiovascular diseases means being more physically active. Sedentary lifestyle reduces blood circulation and working capacity of heart. Also an active person tends to build less cholesterol in artery veins than a sedentary person. An adult needs to understand the causes of cardiovascular disease so that he can avoid it. If they avoid smoking and control calorie and fat rich food then they can avoid this disease to an extent. The blood pressure and diabetic condition also need to be kept in check. The blood pressure can be increased due to overweight and increased salt consumption. The person also needs to reduce stress level to keep blood pressure in balance.

According to ( Kenny,2013) “If you have a high risk of developing a cardiovascular disease, treatment to reduce high blood pressure (hypertension) and/or cholesterol may be advised”. The age, weight, diet, lifestyle all has a large contribution to the onset of cardiovascular disease. Adults who consume large quantity of fat - laden food can get cardio related diseases later in life. This diet accompanies by their leisure lifestyle can result in cardiovascular diseases more early in adults. Some people are more prone to cardiovascular disease due to gene inheritance. Such people need to be more conscious towards their diet and lifestyle from early adulthood. The best way to prevent heart disease is by avoiding smoking and drugs. One needs to exercise for 30 minutes for at least 3 days in a week. Eating a heart healthy diet can prevent heart problems to an extend which means consuming more fish rich in omega fatty acids and fruits and vegetables and avoiding food with saturated and trans fat . Alcohol can be consumed at a small scale to improve circulation of blood. Another important factor to prevent cardio problem is to maintain a healthy weight. Excess weight leads to blood pressure increase, high cholesterol and diabetes. Also it exerts more pressure on heart which increases heart ailments. The African American women are thought to be more cardiovascular disease prone because of their poor diet with more oil and sugar. They also have more fat distribution on lower body which inhibits physical activity. However the whites have cardio problems and can get disease as much as African Americans.

5. What are some stereotypes of late adulthood? How does stereotype threat impact elders’ functioning? What are some cultural differences in aging stereotypes? What are some characteristics of wise elders? Explain the benefits of continuing education for elders. How can educators increase program effectiveness?

Stereotyping is found in all stages of human life and in late adulthood it takes another form. The old people have a stereotype that all old people are same. This is not true because people may vary in nature despite of their age. Some old people are more active and happy tan other people. They old people have a thinking that human needs change as they grows older which is false. They also assume that they have lost their reasoning ability as they age. They also think that all old people are senile and cannot contribute anything to life and society in general. The older people also have a notion that they cannot anymore enjoy sex life. As per ( Peppard,2011) “There is a strong belief in our society that sex is for the young and that older people should not and/or cannot engage in sexual activity. Old and young people believe this myth”. The stereotype during old age is high because they feel they are useless and weak as age approaches. As their body and mental capacity decrease as they age they have stereotypes that changes their attitude towards people and relationships. The people also think that old people cannot drive properly and cannot see or hear properly which is not case until 80 or 90 years. Many people think that old people wants to die fast which is not the case. There is also belief that as people get older they cannot take important decision in life.

The stereotype impacts the functioning of old people at many levels. Due to the stereotypes about old people they have lower confidence, lethargy and pity feeling towards oneself and each other. They feel they have no use in the family and society and can get depressed, worthless and even ill. Many old people think that they have no life anymore and all their wishes and desires and come to an end. The old people become less active in social and personal life. They can get isolated and spend more time in despair and sorrow. The stereotype also differs in various cultures as people in Asia and Africa are more negative than Europeans regarding old people. The wise adults however go unaffected by such stereotype beliefs as they analyse themselves in a more intelligent manner. They understand that age is a matter of biological process and it need to be confronted with practicality and experience. They believe in their self, abilities and achievement and lead a positive live despite of all the stereotyping. The old people need to be educated regarding so many factors as they need information on building confidence, positivity and awareness. They need education on how to use their age to lead a better life. The programmers can increase effectiveness by giving them advice on increasing their health and wellness. The programs can be effective if more social activities are suggested to improve their lifestyle. The programs need to suit the interests and choices of old people. The educational programs need to be simple and comprehensive for old people.

References Katherine, B. (2000). Cognitive Development: Information Processing. In http://highered.mc graw-hill.com. Retrieved April 26, 2014, from http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/007282 0144/student_view0/chapter10/ Kenny, T. (2013). Preventing Cardiovascular Diseases. In http://www.patient.co.uk/he alth/preventing-cardiovascular-diseases. Retrieved April 26, 2014, from http://www.patient .co.uk/health/preventing-cardiovascular-diseases Pauriyal, K. (2011). Friendship Pattern as a Correlate of Age and Gender Differences. Stud Home Com Sci,, 5(2), 105-111. Peppard, N. R. (2011). Myths and Stereotypes of Aging. In http://www.oregon.gov. Retrieved April 26, 2014, from http://www.oregon.gov/dhs/apd-dd-training/EQC%20Training%20Docu ments/Myths%20and%20Stereotypes%20of%20Aging.pdf Sharma, P. (2013). A Study of Menarche Experiences and Related. Home Science, 3(8), 346-350.