FROM WID TO GAD: CONCEPTUAL SHIFTS IN THE WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT DISCOURSE

Abstract

The Fourth World Conference on Women, to be held in Beijing in September 1995, provides an opportunity for the world community to focus attention on areas of critical concern for women worldwide concerns that stem from social problems embracing both men and women, and that require solutions affecting both genders. One of the main objectives of the Conference is to adopt a platform for action, concentrating on some of the key areas identified as obstacles to the advancement of women. UNRISDs work in preparation for the Fourth World Conference on Women focuses on two of the themes highlighted by the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women: 2 inequality in women’s access to and participation in the definition of economic structures and policies and the productive process itself; and 2 insufficient institutional mechanisms to promote the advancement of women. The Institutes Occasional Paper series for Beijing reflects work carried out under the UNRISD/UNDP project, Technical Co-operation and Women’s Lives: Integrating Gender into Development Policy. The activities of the project include an assessment of efforts by a selected number of donor agencies and governments to integrate gender issues into their activities; the action-oriented part of the project involves pilot studies in Bangladesh, Jamaica, Morocco, Uganda and Viet Nam, the goal of which is to initiate a policy dialogue between gender researchers, policy makers and activists aimed at making economic policies and productive processes more accountable to women. This paper, the first in the series, provides an introduction to women and development by tracing the main trends in the way women’s issues have been conceptualized in the development context. Part I of the paper explains the emergence of women in development (WID) in the early 1970s, highlighting in particular a dominant strand of thinking within WID that sought to make women’s issues relevant to development by showing the positive synergies between investing in women and reaping benefits in terms of economic growth. Even though making efficiency- based arguments proved to be effective as a political strategy for having women’s issues taken up by donor agencies, it also entailed a number of controversial outcomes. An undue emphasis was placed on what women could contribute to development (at times based on exaggerated claims), while their demands from development for gender equity became secondary and conditional upon showing positive growth synergies. Part II of the paper looks at the analytical and intellectual underpinnings of the shift from WID to GAD (gender and development). Gender is being used by researchers and practitioners in a number of different ways. The theoretical underpinnings and policy implications of two prominent frameworks for gender analysis (and training) the gender roles framework and social relations analysis are discussed at some length. These frameworks are then linked to two relatively recent sets of literature on gender: the first on gender and efficiency at the macro- economic level, which shares several premises with the gender roles framework, and the second on women’s empowerment strategies, which can be seen as the action-oriented outgrowth of social relations analysis. The authors highlight two main tensions that emerge from the different conceptualizations of gender. First, at the analytical level, there are critical differences in the extent to which the togetherness or social connectedness of husband and wife is given analytical weight; a pervasive feature of (predominantly neo-classical) economic models of gender is to use analogies from elsewhere in the economic repertoire, which tend to miss some important dimensions of togetherness characteristic of husband/wife relations. Second, at the political level, the extent to which the goal of gender-aware development is to be linked to top-down or bottom-up strategies remains controversial. While women’s NGOs and grassroots organizations have an important role to play in creating space for women to politicize their demands, there are serious limits to what institutions of civil society can achieve. The state still remains responsible for regulating macro-level forces in a more gender-equitable manner. It is with this point in mind that the possible points of convergence between top-down and bottom-up strategies can be explored by women and development advocates

UNIT 6 WID-WAD-GAD – PART I
Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Concepts of Development and Underdevelopment
6.4 Boserup‟s Thesis
6.4.1 Critique of Boserup
6.5 Emergence of Women in Development (WID) Approach
6.5.1 Welfare approach
6.5.2 Equity approach
6.6 Three World Conferences on Women
6.6.1 Anti- Poverty approach
6.6.2 Efficiency approach
6.7 Women and Development (WAD) Approach
6.7.1 Empowerment approach
6.7.2 The Indian Context
6.8 Critique of WID
6.9 Gender and Development (GAD) Approach
6.10 Fourth World Conference on Women
6.11 Summing Up
6.12 Glossary
6.13 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise
6.14 References
6.15 Questions for Reflection and Practice
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6.1 INTRODUCTION
Ever since the formation of the United Nations Commission on the Status for Women in 1946, it had been proposing a U. N. Women’s Conference with little success. Gradually with pressure from the American Women’s Movement, the U.N. General Assembly declared 1975 as the International Women’s Year and 1975-1985 as the International Decade for Women. This declaration led to a growing awareness of women’s issues and an acceptance of their demands as legitimate issues for policy making, both at the national and international level. The major themes of the International Women’s Year and Conference were-- Equality, Development and Peace. Equality, however, had been a dominant issue for the U.N. Commission on the Status of Women and it came primarily from the feminist movement of the Western industrialized nations. Peace was increasingly considered to be a women’s issue by the countries of the Eastern block. Development, on the other hand, was a recent issue put forward mainly by the newly independent “Third World” nations as a key to improving women’s lives.
During the Decade, the important but previously invisible role of women in the social and economic development of the poorer countries was highlighted. The declaration of the
International Decade for Women (1975-85) signified the new visibility of Women in Development (WID) in international forums.
The WID approach was adopted pointing to the fact that women’s contribution for development is not recognized by the policy makers. Women are treated as „beneficiaries‟ of development, not as active agents of development. Prior to this, however, women were brought into „development‟ policy on very sex-specific terms. Men were seen as the heads of households and productive agents. Women were seen as housewives, mothers and reproducers. Therefore development efforts targeted the male population, while women were relegated to the marginal welfare sector.
In this Unit we will trace the emergence of a gender-sensitive development debate. But before we examine the details of the term „Women in Development‟ and the U.N. Women’s Conferences, we need to understand the concept of „development‟, who defines it and how it is defined within the context of international politics.
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6.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit you should be able to
• highlight the gender blindness of Development and Underdevelopment;
• discuss the feminist critiques of Development; and
• analyze the different approaches to WID, WAD and GAD Approaches.

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6.3 CONCEPTS OF DEVELOPMENT AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT
Till the mid-sixties, modernization theories were used to understand post-colonial societies. Modernization theories perceived development as an evolutionary, unilinear process of change that would change traditional society, through various stages to a state of modernity. It involved a total transformation of traditional societies, their institutions, cultures and behavior. The crux of these theories was that development involved industrial growth which was autonomous and self-sustaining. This form of development, which had occurred in the west, was assumed to be a role model for the rest of the world to follow. There was a kind of economic determinism involved, as development was measured mainly in terms of growth in GNP and it was believed that the benefits of economic growth would „trickle down‟ to households at the bottom of the income hierarchy. On the whole, modernization theories argued that capitalism played a progressive role in the development of traditional and underdeveloped societies.
By the late 1960s and early 1970s there was a growing disillusionment with modernization theories. Its inability to explain the failure of capitalist development in different parts of the world, particularly Latin America, led to the rise of an alternative theory, namely underdevelopment theory or dependency theory. The theorists Andre Gunder Frank and Immanuel Wallerstein have contributed immensely to the development and popularization of dependency theory.
Frank was one of the first theorists to analyze the causes for the underdeveloped and dependent status of the Third World countries. He argues that this is because of the exploitative chain of metropolis-satellite or core-periphery relations that exist throughout the world system that affect both the economy and polity of the peripheral countries.
Through a historical analysis of Chile and Brazil, Frank tries to show the exploitative relation between the capitalist world and the national metropolises to the regional centres and so on to large landholders or merchants who appropriate surplus from small peasants or tenants, and sometimes even from the latter to landless labourers exploited by them in turn. At each point, the international, national and local capitalist system generates economic development for the few and underdevelopment for the many. The entire system has a monopolistic structure which involves the misuse and squandering of resources throughout the system. This capitalist expansion, however, generates the continuous development of the metropolises and the continuous underdevelopment of the satellites. The transfer of surplus from the satellite to the metropolis leads to distorted development in the satellite. Finally it is the imperialist metropolis at the end of the metropolis-satellite chain that appropriates all the resources.
Hence, while there is continuous development of the metropolises, simultaneously there is continuous underdevelopment of the satellites. Highlighting the political consequences of dependency, Frank argues that the ruling classes have a vested interest in maintaining the exploitative and monopolistic capitalist structure that runs like a chain from the villages to the imperialist metropolis. For Frank, therefore, the only way to break out of the monopolistic capitalist system is to have a world-wide socialist revolution. Like Frank, for Wallerstein too, unequal exchange between the core and the periphery leads to the development of the former and underdevelopment of the latter. The underdevelopment theories, have been completely blind to the question of gender and the contribution of women to economic development. It was at this time that the contribution of Ester Boserup in her book “Women’s Role in Economic Development” (1970) was recognized and widely quoted.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: i. Use the space given below to answer the questions. ii. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. What do we mean by Underdevelopment?

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6.4 BOSERUP’S THESIS
The publication of Ester Boserup‟s book in 1970, coincided with the growing wave of feminist consciousness in Europe and USA and youth radicalization all over the world. Boserup argues that a change in the density of population results in the change of techniques in farming, which requires a higher labour input resulting in a change in the division of labour between men and women.
She distinguished between two systems of subsistence agriculture. One is characterized by shifting cultivation, done mainly by female farmers, as in Africa. The other, characterized by plough cultivation, done mainly by male farmers as in South Asia. Boserup criticized the “dubious generalization” according to which males were considered to be the providers of food. With her comparative analysis, she pointed out the differences in women‟s work, emphasizing the important role women played in African agriculture as compared to the lesser role women played in Asian and Latin American countries.
The reasons for such a difference– in Africa were a low density of population, absence of agrarian technologies and shortage of domestic animals for agrarian task. Land was easily accessible and there was less class differentiation. Thus the men were mainly occupied with clearing the land, while the women cultivated subsistence crops.
In her analysis, Boserup points to the existence of a strong correlation between economic conditions and polygamy. In areas of plough cultivation, where there is a small minority of polygamous marriages, the women are totally dependent on their husbands for economic support and they are valued only as mothers.
Boserup went on to analyze and point out the adverse effects that European colonialism and the capitalist penetration of subsistence economies often had on women. The European colonial rulers were largely responsible for the neglect of the female farming systems of Africa and the resulting loss of status of the African women. They were unsympathetic to the female farming systems that they found in many of their colonies and believed in the superiority of the male farming system. Hence, when they introduced modern technology, cash crops, and so forth, Boserup argues that they trained only the males to the neglect of the female farmers. This benefited the men, enhancing their prestige and lowering that of women. The discriminatory policies followed in education and training created a technical, cultural and productivity gap between men and women. Women were increasingly relegated to the subsistence sector of food production using the traditional methods of cultivation. The “land reforms introduced by the European administrators”, also resulted in the loss of land rights for the women. From being cultivators themselves, women were increasingly marginalized from agriculture and reduced to being “unpaid helpers in the production of crops belonging to their husbands”. Thus, women lost income and status in comparison to men.
Boserup also analyzed the status of women and the sexual divisions of labour that existed in non-agricultural activities particularly in the urban areas. She divides towns into predominantly female or male towns. Her thesis challenged the commonly held notion that women‟s status and their rights automatically improve with modernization. Despite Boserup‟s path breaking contribution to the field of women in development, her work has also led to a great deal of debate and controversy.
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6.4.1 Critique of Boserup
One of the earliest critics of Boserup‟s thesis, Suellen Huntington, argued that the division of farming systems into male and female, ignored important aspects of male domination which could not be explained only by developments in agricultural technology. Besides this, Huntington pointed out that in female farming systems, women may have had an important role in agricultural production. However, it did not mean that they enjoyed equal status or greater power in relation to men. Claims for women‟s equality should be argued for on their own merits and not depend on historical evidence that is refutable.
Lourdes Beneria and Gita Sen, argued that Boserup‟s thesis was “essentially empirical and descriptive” and that it “lacked a clearly defined theoretical framework”. They criticized her for accepting the capitalist model of development as given. Women‟s economic marginalization was due to their incorporation into the worldwide capitalist system which exploited their labour and not because they were excluded from productive labour. Further, they argued that Boserup concentrates on women‟s role outside the household and thus ignores women‟s role in reproduction and domestic production. Hence, it is argued that, Boserup‟s analysis lacks a feminist perspective on women‟s subordination (For a detailed critique of Boserup‟s thesis, see L. Beneria and G. Sen, 1981). Boserup‟s thesis, however, justified the efforts to influence government policy and development on the basis of both justice and efficiency. The debate on Boserup‟s thesis can be located in a larger debate which can be largely labeled as the “Decolonization of the Mind” or in other words the issue of development and the politics of knowledge. For the modernization theorists, decolonization had come to mean westernization and the very idea of decolonization assumed a model similar to the child development model. While Carol Gilligan pointed out to the implicit male bias in the model, Nandy had pointed out the implicit imperialistic bias in these models of decolonization. Debates on the western model as environmentally destructive and spiritually lacking were in focus. Tariq Banuri has summarized this in his work “Modernization and its Discontents – A Cultural Perspective on the Theories of Development”.
Tariq Banuri points out, that in order to understand the problems of development and progress one needs to look at the cultural context within which they arose. He argues that the theories of modernization are placed in a unique kind of culture, where “the impersonal is superior to the personal”. The modernization theories argue that due to this existence of personal relations in traditional societies, development is impeded. The neo-classical economic theory too, Banuri argues, looks upon the individual as separate from the environment.
Banuri suggests that many of the problems in society that seem insoluble, are “based in the assumption of a dichotomy and a hierarchy between the impersonal and the personal spheres of culture”. The solution for it is to supplant the idea of hierarchy with that of a „tension‟ or„dialectic‟ between the two. What is needed is a change in the basic assumption of economic theory that all actions can be reduced to the impersonal sphere and to see human actions as a result of the tension between conflicting obligations and commitments.
The search for an alternative vision thus, begins with the idea of “progress as being the expansion of the awareness of oppression in society”. The existence of a positive relation between impersonality and progress, as claimed by modernization theorists is disqualified. The debate on the meaning of development, it is argued, is highly technocratized and therefore it should be replaced with a „broader social definition‟. The oppressed on realization of their oppression, will outline their own priorities and take the required social and political action. The social scientist should take responsibility for the long term consequences of their prescription. The indigenous ways of knowing, based on direct personal relationships, should be strengthened. Decentralization is needed in the polity, economy and society. Finally, however, this alternate vision must differ from place to place according to the cultural characteristics of the place.
However, even in these debates on alternative models, gender is not accorded the status of a structural component. The fact that women had not benefited from the new productive opportunities, new technology and market forces, resulted in doubts over the presumed neutrality of the development agencies. This led to the emergence of the WID critique of development. The WID scholars, however, retained the fundamental premise of the liberal world view. The problem was how to integrate women into development.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Note: i. Use the space given below to answer the questions. ii. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Whose writings highlighted women’s contribution to economic development?

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6.5 EMERGENCE OF WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT (WID) APPROACH
6.5.1 Welfare Approach
Initially, during the First Development Decade 1961-70, there was no mention of women specifically. WID was characterized by the Welfare approach. It was assumed that social and economic development in general, would bring about the desired changes for women. Women were seen as passive beneficiaries of development with focus on their reproductive role. However, at this early stage, the emphasis was on equal rights for women rather than on economic development.

6.5.2 Equity approach
During the Second Development Decade, 1971-80, the importance of the “full integration of women in the total development efforts,” was emphasized. The Equity approach aimed at gaining equity for women in the development process. Women were seen as active participants in development. The main goal was to integrate women into the development process more productively. The key route through this could be achieved which was equality of opportunity through education and training. A number of committees within professional associations, new women’s groups and others were formed. They came together on important issues like equal pay for equal work, greater visibility of women within professional organizations, equal rights amendment, and so on. This led to the formation of many women’s pressure groups especially the ones concerning Women in Development (WID). The advocates of WID pointed out to the phenomena that many scholars had observed, particularly in the developing countries i.e. the adverse impact that development seemed to have on women. The feminization of poverty and the growing number of women-headed households as a result of the development policies was also highlighted.
With pressure from the American women’s movement, the United Nations declared 1975 as the International Women’s Year and 1975-1985 as the International Women’s Decade. With this there was a growing awareness of women’s issues and an acceptance of their demands as legitimate issues for policy making, both at the national and international level. The major themes of the Decade were – Equality, Development and Peace. The UN Decade for Women and the international conferences gave impetus to the gender component in development debates.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Note: i. Use the space given below to answer the questions. ii. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Trace the emergence of the WID approaches.

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6.6 THREE WORLD CONFERENCES ON WOMEN
In 1975, the World Conference for the International Women’s Year was held in Mexico City. The Conference highlighted the differences in the needs of women from the
Western industrialized nations and those from the agricultural nations. This frequently led to debates on what embodied “women‟s issues”. The equity approach was identified as „developmental‟, but mainly reflected “First world” feminist pre-occupations with equality. The “Second world” delegates were concerned with peace. They argued that capitalism and militarism was responsible for women‟s problems. The “Third World” delegates were concerned with development. They argued that development was the key to improving women‟s lives. While the women from the underdeveloped nations were concerned mainly with the survival of the family unit, employment opportunities and legal and economic roles of women; those from the developed nations emphasized the symbolic expressions of authority, status, and control over one‟s own body, discrimination against women, etc. It also meant the adoption of different strategies for change in the status of women.
Scholars like Ester Boserup, Elise Boulding and others, have noted that often, economic development in the underdeveloped countries leads to structural changes that dislocate women from income generating occupations, or place a greater load on women who continue with subsistence agriculture, while men move into mechanized agriculture, grow cash crops or migrate to the cities. It was also pointed out that there are a growing number of female headed-households. It was recommended that these women should also be given priority for employment on par with men with family responsibilities. Stress was also laid on the fact that peace also could be achieved only by realizing that women, who consisted of half the world‟s population, were also human beings with equal rights in civil, political, economic and social fields.
6.6.1 Anti- Poverty Approach
The Equity approach, however, was considered threatening and not popular with governments. It was criticized as Western feminism. Hence there was a shift to the Anti-
Poverty approach. This approach toned down equality because of criticism. It was more concerned with redistribution along with growth and basic needs. Its purpose was to ensure poor women increase their productivity, since women‟s poverty was seen as a problem of underdevelopment not their subordination. However this approach isolated poor women as a separate category with a tendency to recognize only their productive role. It was more popular among the NGOs and developed at a small scale.

6.6.2 Efficiency Approach
With the UN Mid-decade Conference on Women held at Copenhagen in 1980, the concept of WID had shifted from the equity to efficiency approach and was articulated in economic terms. The conference was dominated by debates on trade, development and politics. There were heated debates over the Palestinian issue, the effects of apartheid on women in South Africa, of women refugees all over the world. Despite the highly publicized arguments, women from different parts of the world endeavoured to understand one another and create a more congruent perspective. At this conference it was recognized that women were both participants and victims in political struggles.
Irene Tinker in her review of the Copenhagen conference asked -- “How do you take one tune and encourage variation while eliciting orchestral support?” The response and comments to it by a number of scholars showed that many people were looking at various women‟s issues that had not been mentioned, recognized or clarified before the decade began. One of the main functions of the Mexico City and Copenhagen conference was consciousness raising.
The emergence of the efficiency approach in this period should be seen in the context of a declining world economy and accompanying stabilization and adjustment policies. With serious cuts in welfare spending, the focus on efficient development meant that women became crucial actors in the development scenario. It recognized women‟s resilience and ability to adjust to crisis. In the formal sector women are prepared to work for longer hours for less pay, they are usually hired later and fired earlier. Given these disadvantages in the formal sector, women are willing to accept worse conditions than men in the informal sector. All these qualities attracted development planners to focus their programes on women.
These approaches recognize that women play a significant economic role both within and outside the families. The efficiency approach focused on credit for women, supplementary income generating projects for women, micro-enterprise for women and so on. It focused only on economic aspects of women in development and it was designed to suit the interests of bigger agents of development rather than the women themselves. This approach is still the most popular WID approach for many national governments, state machineries for women and aid agencies, as well as NGOs who are keen to maintain the status quo in the name of economic development without having to question the underlying power relations in the communities in which they work.
At the third and final conference of the international decade for women at Nairobi, the various dimensions of women‟s needs came up. It was at this conference that the needs of the “Third World” women gained recognition and were highlighted. The main concerns of women living in subsistence societies were environmental issues, methods in forest and water management, sustainable agriculture, etc. These issues were combined with environmental issues on a world scale. The demands of “Third World” countries for techniques to limit the drudgery of everyday work were also put forward. Divisive and political issues such as the debt crises and its effects on countries of the “Third World”, the issue of apartheid in South Africa were debated upon. There was growing recognition of the fact that one-third of the families of the world were headed by women. The women worked to support their families and were also charged with bringing up the children.

|Ukurasa 1 |

Mada 6 WID-wad-gadi - SEHEMU
Muundo
6.1 Utangulizi
6.2 Madhumuni ya
6.3 Dhana ya Maendeleo na maendeleo duni
6.4 Boserup "s Thesis
6.4.1 kukosoa Boserup
6.5 kuibuka kwa Njia ya Maendeleo ya Wanawake (WID)
6.5.1 Ustawi wa mbinu
6.5.2 Equity mbinu
6.6 Mikutano ya Tatu ya Dunia wa Wanawake
6.6.1 Kupambana na Umaskini mbinu
6.6.2 ufanisi mbinu
6.7 Wanawake na Maendeleo (busha) Njia
6.7.1 Uwezeshaji mbinu
6.7.2 Mazingira ya Hindi
6.8 kukosoa WID
6.9 Jinsia na Maendeleo (Gadi) Njia
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|Ukurasa 2 |

6.10 Mkutano wa Nne wa Dunia wa Wanawake
6.11 Summing Up
6.12 Glossary
6.13 Majibu ya kuangalia maendeleo yako Zoezi
6.14 Kumbukumbu
6.15 Maswali ya kutafakari na mazoezi
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6.1 UTANGULIZI
Tangu kuundwa kwa Umoja wa Mataifa wa Tume ya Hali ya Wanawake mwaka 1946, ilikuwa kupendekeza Wanawake ya Umoja wa Mataifa "s Mkutano na mafanikio kidogo. Hatua kwa hatua na shinikizo kutoka Marekani Movement Wanawake "s, Baraza Kuu la Umoja wa Mataifa alitangaza
1975 kama ya Kimataifa ya Wanawake "ya Mwaka na 1975-1985 kama Muongo wa Kimataifa kwa
Wanawake. Azimio hili lilisababisha mwamko wa kuongezeka kwa wanawake "na masuala ya kukubali madai yao kama masuala ya halali kwa ajili ya kufanya sera, katika kitaifa na kimataifa ngazi. kaulimbiu ya Kimataifa ya Wanawake Mwaka "s na Mkutano walikuwa - Equality,
Maendeleo na amani. Usawa, hata hivyo, alikuwa suala kubwa kwa Umoja wa Mataifa
Tume ya Hali ya Wanawake na ilitokea hasa kutoka harakati ya jinsia ya
Viwanda vingi mataifa ya Magharibi. Amani imezidi kuonekana kuwa wanawake "s suala kwa nchi za kuzuia Mashariki. Maendeleo, kwa upande mwingine, ni suala kuweka hivi karibuni mbele zaidi na zilizopata uhuru "Third World" mataifa kama msingi wa kuboresha wanawake "s maisha.
Wakati wa Muongo, jukumu muhimu lakini awali usioonekana wa wanawake katika jamii na maendeleo ya kiuchumi ya nchi maskini ilikuwa yalionyesha. tamko la
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|Ukurasa 3 |

Muongo wa Kimataifa ya Wanawake (1975-1985) ishara muonekano mpya wa Wanawake katika
Maendeleo (WID) katika vikao vya kimataifa.
Mbinu WID ilipitishwa na kuelezea ukweli kwamba wanawake "s mchango kwa ajili ya maendeleo si kutambuliwa na watunga sera. Wanawake wanachukuliwa kama "walengwa" ya maendeleo, si kama mawakala hai wa maendeleo. Kabla ya hayo, hata hivyo, wanawake walikuwa kuletwa katika sera ya "maendeleo" kwa masharti ngono sana maalum. Watu walikuwa kuonekana kama wakuu wa kaya na mawakala wa uzalishaji. Wanawake walikuwa kuonekana kama akina mama wa nyumbani mama, na reproducers. Hivyo maendeleo juhudi walengwa wakazi wa kiume, wakati wanawake walikuwa inaachwa sekta ndogo ya ustawi.
Katika Unit hii sisi kuwaeleza kuibuka kwa mjadala wa maendeleo ya jinsia.
Lakini kabla ya kuchunguza maelezo ya "Wanawake katika Maendeleo" mrefu na Umoja wa Mataifa
Wanawake "s Mikutano, tunahitaji kuelewa dhana ya" maendeleo ", ambaye amefafanua kuwa na jinsi inavyoelezwa katika mazingira ya siasa za kimataifa.
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6.2 MADHUMUNI
Baada ya kusoma Unit unapaswa kuwa na uwezo wa
( kuonyesha upofu wa Maendeleo ya jinsia na maendeleo duni;
( kujadili uhakiki wa jinsia ya Maendeleo, na
( kuchambua mbinu mbalimbali kwa WID, busha na Mikabala gadi.
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|Ukurasa 4 |

6.3 Dhana ya maendeleo na maendeleo duni
Mpaka katikati ya miaka ya sitini nadharia za kisasa, zilitumika kuelewa baada ya ukoloni jamii. Nadharia za kisasa kama alijua maendeleo ya mabadiliko, unilinear mchakato wa mabadiliko ambayo mabadiliko ya jamii ya jadi, kwa njia ya hatua mbalimbali na hali ya modernity. Ni kushiriki mabadiliko ya jumla ya jamii ya jadi, taasisi zao, tamaduni na tabia. crux ya nadharia hizi ni kwamba maendeleo ya viwanda kushiriki ukuaji ambayo ilikuwa ya uhuru na kujitegemea. Aina hii ya maendeleo, ambayo ilikuwa na ilitokea katika magharibi, ilichukuliwa kuwa mfano wa kuigwa kwa wengine wa dunia kufuata.
Kulikuwa na aina ya utambuzi wa kiuchumi kushiriki, kama maendeleo ni kipimo hasa katika ukuaji katika GNP na iliaminika kwamba faida za ukuaji wa uchumi ingekuwa
"Kujipenyeza" kwa kaya chini ya uongozi wa mapato. Kwa ujumla, kisasa nadharia alisema kuwa ubepari jukumu maendeleo katika maendeleo ya jadi na maendeleo duni ya jamii.
Kwa miaka ya 1960 na mapema miaka ya 1970 kulikuwa na disillusionment kukua na nadharia za kisasa. Kukosa uwezo wake kueleza kushindwa kwa maendeleo ya kibepari katika sehemu mbalimbali duniani, hasa Amerika ya Kusini, wakiongozwa na kupanda kwa mbadala nadharia, yaani maendeleo duni nadharia au nadharia ya utegemezi. wananadharia Andre Gunder
Frank na Immanuel Wallerstein kuwa na mchango mkubwa kwa maendeleo na popularization ya nadharia ya utegemezi.
Frank alikuwa mmoja wa wananadharia kwanza kuchambua sababu za maendeleo duni na hutegemea hali ya nchi za dunia ya tatu. Anasema kuwa hii ni kwa sababu ya unyonyaji mlolongo wa mahusiano ya jiji-satellite au msingi-pembezoni ambazo zipo katika mfumo wa dunia yanayoathiri wote uchumi na Politia ya nchi pembeni.
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|Ukurasa 5 |

Kwa njia ya uchambuzi wa kihistoria wa Chile na Brazil, Frank anajaribu kuonyesha unyonyaji uhusiano kati ya ulimwengu wa kibepari na metropolises kitaifa na vituo vya kikanda na kadhalika kwa wenye ardhi kubwa au wafanyabiashara ambao sahihi ziada kutoka kwa wakulima wadogo au wapangaji, na wakati mwingine hata kutoka mwisho kwa wafanyakazi wasio na ardhi kunyonywa na wao kwa zamu.
Katika hatua kila, kimataifa, kitaifa na za mfumo wa kibepari inazalisha kiuchumi maendeleo kwa ajili ya wachache na maendeleo duni kwa ajili ya wengi. mfumo mzima ina monopolistic muundo ambayo inahusisha matumizi mabaya na matumizi mabaya ya rasilimali katika mfumo. Hii upanuzi wa kibepari, hata hivyo, inazalisha ya maendeleo endelevu ya metropolises na kukosekana kwa maendeleo endelevu ya satelaiti. uhamisho wa ziada kutoka satellite ya jiji inaongoza kwa maendeleo ya kuumbuka katika satellite. Hatimaye ni
Miji ya ubeberu na mwisho wa mzunguko wa jiji-satellite kwamba appropriates wote rasilimali. Hivyo, wakati kuna kuendelea maendeleo ya metropolises, wakati huo huo huko ni kuendelea kukosekana kwa maendeleo ya satelaiti. Mwangaza wa kisiasa madhara ya utegemezi, Frank anasema kuwa madarasa ya chama tawala kuwa na maslahi yaliyopo katika kudumisha unyonyaji na mfumo wa kibepari monopolistic kwamba anaendesha kama mnyororo kutoka vijiji jiji ubeberu. Kwa Frank, kwa hiyo, njia pekee ya kuvunja nje ya monopolistic mfumo wa kibepari ni kuwa na duniani kote mapinduzi ya kisoshalisti. Kama Frank, kwa Wallerstein pia, usawa kubadilishana kati ya msingi na pembezoni inaongoza kwa maendeleo ya zamani na maendeleo duni ya mwisho maendeleo duni. nadharia, wamekuwa vipofu kabisa kwa masuala ya jinsia na mchango wa wanawake maendeleo ya kiuchumi. Ni katika wakati huu kwamba mchango wa Boserup Ester katika yake
"Wajibu wa Wanawake katika Maendeleo ya Kiuchumi" kitabu (1970) alikuwa kutambuliwa na sana alinukuliwa.
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Kuangalia maendeleo yako Zoezi 1
Angalia: i. Kutumia nafasi aliyopewa chini ya kujibu maswali. ii. Linganisha jibu lako kwa moja kutokana na mwisho wa kitengo hiki.
1. Tufanye nini maana ya kukosekana kwa maendeleo?
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6.4 BOSERUP WA Thesis uchapishaji wa kitabu Ester Boserup "ya mwaka 1970, sanjari na wimbi kubwa ya jinsia fahamu katika Ulaya na Marekani na vijana radikalisering duniani kote.
Boserup anasema kuwa mabadiliko katika wiani wa matokeo ya idadi ya watu katika mabadiliko ya mbinu katika kilimo, ambayo inahitaji kazi kubwa pembejeo kusababisha mabadiliko katika mgawanyo wa kazi kati ya wanaume na wanawake.
Yeye wanajulikana kati ya mifumo miwili ya kilimo cha mazao ya chakula. Moja ni sifa kwa shifting kilimo, kufanyika hasa kwa wakulima wanawake, kama katika Afrika. mengine, sifa kwa kulima kilimo, kufanyika hasa kwa wakulima wa kiume kama katika Asia ya Kusini. Boserup alikosoa "dubious generalization" kulingana na ambayo wanaume walikuwa kuchukuliwa kuwa watoa huduma ya chakula. Kwa uchambuzi wake kulinganisha, alisema tofauti katika wanawake "s kazi, na kusisitiza wanawake mchango muhimu unaotolewa katika kilimo barani Afrika ikilinganishwa na alicheza chini ya jukumu la wanawake katika nchi za Asia na Amerika ya Kusini.
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sababu za tofauti katika Afrika vile walikuwa wiani ya chini ya idadi ya watu, kukosekana kwa teknolojia ya kilimo na uhaba wa wanyama wa nyumbani kwa ajili ya kazi ya kilimo. Ardhi ilikuwa kwa urahisi na kuna ilikuwa chini ya darasa tofauti. Hivyo, watu walikuwa hasa shughuli za kusafisha nchi, wakati wanawake kulima mazao ya kujikimu.
Katika uchambuzi wake, Boserup pointi na kuwepo kwa uhusiano mkubwa kati ya kiuchumi hali na ndoa za wake wengi. Katika maeneo ya kulima kilimo, ambapo kuna dogo wachache wa ndoa za wake wengi, wanawake ni tegemezi juu ya waume zao kwa msaada wa kiuchumi na wao ni thamani tu kama mama.
Boserup aliendelea kuchambua na kumweka nje ya madhara mabaya ambayo Ulaya ukoloni na kupenya kibepari za uchumi wa kujikimu mara nyingi alikuwa juu ya wanawake. The
Watawala wa kikoloni wa Ulaya kwa kiasi kikubwa kuwajibika kwa kupuuza kilimo kike mifumo ya Afrika na kusababisha hasara ya hali ya wanawake wa Afrika. Walikuwa unsympathetic kwa mifumo ya kilimo cha kike waliona katika nyingi ya makoloni yao na waliamini katika ubora wa mfumo wa kiume kilimo. Hivyo, wakati wao ilianzisha kisasa teknolojia, mazao ya biashara, na kadhalika, Boserup anasema kuwa wao mafunzo kwa wanaume tu kutelekezwa ya wakulima wanawake. Hii faida watu, kuongeza heshima yao na kupunguza ile ya wanawake. sera za kibaguzi kufuatwa katika elimu na mafunzo umba kiufundi, utamaduni na pengo tija kati ya wanaume na wanawake. Wanawake wanazidi inaachwa wadogo wadogo wa sekta ya uzalishaji chakula kwa kutumia mbinu za jadi za kilimo. "Ardhi mageuzi ulioanzishwa na watawala wa Ulaya", pia ilisababisha hasara ya haki za ardhi kwa ajili ya wanawake. Kutoka kuwa cultivators wenyewe, wanawake walikuwa inazidi pembezoni kutokana na kilimo na kupungua na kuwa wasaidizi "bila malipo katika uzalishaji wa mazao ya mali ya waume zao ". Hivyo, wanawake kupoteza mapato na hadhi katika kulinganisha na wanaume.
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Boserup pia uchambuzi wa hali ya wanawake na mgawanyiko wa kingono wa ajira ambazo kuwepo katika shughuli zisizo za kilimo hasa katika maeneo ya mijini. Yeye mgawanyiko wa miji katika mwanamke au mwanaume unategemea miji. Thesis yake ya kawaida uliofanyika changamoto dhana kwamba wanawake "s hadhi na haki zao moja kwa moja kuboresha na kisasa. Pamoja na
Boserup "s njia kuvunja mchango wa uwanja wa wanawake katika maendeleo, kazi yake ni pia ulisababisha mpango mkubwa wa mjadala na utata.
6.4.1 kukosoa Boserup
Moja ya wakosoaji mwanzo wa Boserup Thesis "s, Suellen Huntington, alisema kuwa mgawanyo wa mifumo ya kilimo katika kiume na wa kike, kupuuzwa mambo muhimu ya kiume utawala ambayo inaweza kuwa alielezea tu kwa maendeleo ya teknolojia katika kilimo.
Zaidi ya hayo, Huntington alisema kuwa katika mifumo ya kilimo cha kike, wanawake wanaweza kuwa na nafasi muhimu katika uzalishaji wa kilimo. Hata hivyo, haikuwa na maana kwamba walifurahia sawa hadhi au madaraka zaidi katika uhusiano na wanaume. Madai ya wanawake "usawa wa lazima alisema kwa juu ya uhalali wao wenyewe na si kutegemea ushahidi wa kihistoria kwamba ni refutable.
Lourdes Beneria na Gita Sen, alisema kuwa Boserup "s Thesis alikuwa" kimsingi kisayansi na maelezo, "na kwamba" hakuwa na mfumo wa wazi nadharia ". Wao kukosoa yake kwa kukubali mtindo wa kibepari ya maendeleo kama huo. Wanawake "ya kiuchumi ya kubaguliwa ni kutokana na wao kuingizwa katika mfumo wa kibepari duniani kote ambayo kunyonywa na kazi yao na siyo kwa sababu walikuwa kutengwa na kazi za uzalishaji. Zaidi ya hayo, walisema kuwa Boserup huzingatia wanawake jukumu "s nje ya kaya na hivyo inapuuzia wanawake "katika jukumu la uzazi na uzalishaji wa ndani. Hivyo, ni kusema kwamba,
Boserup "s inakosa uchambuzi juu ya mtazamo wa jinsia wanawake" s kuwa chini (Kwa kina kukosoa Thesis Boserup "s, angalia L. Beneria na G. Sen, 1981). Boserup "s Thesis, hata hivyo, haki juhudi za ushawishi wa sera za serikali na maendeleo kwa misingi ya wote
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|Ukurasa 9 |

haki na ufanisi. mjadala juu ya Thesis Boserup "s inaweza kuwa iko katika mjadala kubwa ambayo inaweza kuwa kwa kiasi kikubwa kinachoitwa kama "wa kikoloni wa akili" au kwa maneno mengine suala la maendeleo na siasa za elimu. Kwa wananadharia kisasa, kumaliza ukoloni walikuwa wamefika kwa maana westernization na wazo sana kudhani mfano wa kikoloni sawa na mfano wa maendeleo ya watoto. Wakati Carol Gilligan alisema kwa thabiti upendeleo katika mfano wa kiume, Nandy alikuwa alisema thabiti kibeberu upendeleo katika mifano ya hizi wa kikoloni. Mijadala juu ya mfano wa magharibi kama uharibifu wa mazingira na kiroho kukosa walikuwa katika mwelekeo. Tariq Banuri ina muhtasari huu katika kazi yake
"Ufanisi na Discontents wake - Mtazamo Utamaduni juu ya Nadharia ya
Maendeleo ".
Tariq Banuri anasema, kwamba ili kuelewa matatizo ya maendeleo na maendeleo moja ya mahitaji ya kuangalia muktadha wa kitamaduni ambamo wao akasimama. Anasema kuwa nadharia ya kisasa ni kuwekwa katika aina ya kipekee ya utamaduni, ambapo "impersonal ni bora kwa binafsi ". nadharia za kisasa wanasema kuwa kutokana na kuwepo kwa hii mahusiano ya mtu binafsi katika jamii ya jadi, maendeleo ni kumezuia. mamboleo classical nadharia za kiuchumi pia, Banuri anasema, inaonekana juu ya mtu binafsi kama tofauti na mazingira. Banuri unaonyesha kwamba matatizo mengi katika jamii ambayo inaonekana hakuna, ni "msingi katika dhana ya dichotomy na uongozi kati ya impersonal na binafsi maeneo ya utamaduni ". ufumbuzi kwa kuwa ni kwa supplant wazo la uongozi na ile ya
"Msuguano" au "dialectic" kati ya mbili. Kinachotakiwa ni mabadiliko katika dhana ya msingi ya kiuchumi nadharia kuwa vitendo vyote, yanapatikana kwa nyanja impersonal na kuona binadamu vitendo kutokana na mvutano kati ya majukumu ya kugongana na ahadi.
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kutafuta njia mbadala maono hivyo, huanza na wazo la maendeleo "kama kuwa upanuzi wa ufahamu wa ukandamizaji katika jamii ". kuwepo kwa mahusiano mazuri kati ya impersonality na maendeleo, alidai kuwa na wananadharia kisasa ni hastahili. mjadala juu ya maana ya maendeleo, ni alisema, ni yenye technocratized na kwa hiyo ni lazima kuwa na nafasi yake kuchukuliwa na "ufafanuzi mpana wa kijamii". walioonewa juu ya utambuzi za ukandamizaji wao, vipaumbele muhtasari yao wenyewe na kuchukua required ya kijamii na kisiasa action. Mwanasayansi ya jamii inapaswa kuchukua jukumu kwa madhara ya muda mrefu ya zao dawa. njia ya asili ya kujua, kwa kuzingatia mahusiano ya moja kwa moja binafsi, lazima kuimarishwa. Madaraka inahitajika katika uchumi Politia, na jamii. Hatimaye,
Hata hivyo, hii dira mbadala lazima tofauti kutoka mahali pa kulingana na utamaduni tabia ya mahali.
Hata hivyo, hata katika mijadala haya juu ya mifano mbadala, jinsia sio wanayopewa hali ya sehemu ya kimuundo na ukweli kwamba wanawake walikuwa wamefaidika kutokana na mpya. fursa za uzalishaji, teknolojia mpya na nguvu za soko, ilisababisha wasiwasi juu ya kudhaniwa haja ya kutokupendelea kwa mashirika ya maendeleo. Hii ilisababisha kuibuka kwa WID kutoa maoni juu ya maendeleo. Wasomi WID, hata hivyo, alishikilia Nguzo ya msingi ya huria dunia maoni. tatizo ni jinsi ya kuunganisha wanawake katika maendeleo.
Kuangalia maendeleo yako Zoezi 2
Angalia: i. Kutumia nafasi aliyopewa chini ya kujibu maswali. ii. Linganisha jibu lako kwa moja kutokana na mwisho wa kitengo hiki.
1. Ambao maandishi yalionyesha wanawake "s mchango wa maendeleo ya kiuchumi?
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6.5 kuibuka wa wanawake katika maendeleo NJIA (WID)
6.5.1 Njia Ustawi
Awali, katika muongo wa kwanza wa Maendeleo ya 1961-1970, kulikuwa hakuna kutaja ya hasa wanawake. WID alikuwa na sifa ya mbinu Ustawi. Ni kudhani kuwa kijamii na kiuchumi kwa ujumla, bila kuleta mabadiliko taka kwa ajili ya wanawake. Wanawake walikuwa kuonekana kama walengwa passiv ya maendeleo kwa lengo la yao uzazi wa kuigwa. Hata hivyo, katika hatua hii mapema, mkazo ulikuwa katika haki sawa kwa wanawake badala ya maendeleo ya kiuchumi.
6.5.2 Equity mbinu
Wakati wa Pili wa Maendeleo ya Muongo, 1971-1980, umuhimu wa full " kuunganisha wanawake katika jitihada za jumla za maendeleo, "ilikuwa alisisitiza. Equity mbinu kwa lengo la kupata usawa kwa wanawake katika mchakato wa maendeleo. Wanawake walikuwa kuonekana kama washiriki kikamilifu katika maendeleo. Lengo kuu ni kuunganisha wanawake katika mchakato wa maendeleo kwa uzalishaji zaidi. njia muhimu kwa njia hii inaweza kuwa na mafanikio ambayo ilikuwa ni fursa sawa kwa njia ya elimu na mafunzo. idadi ya kamati ndani ya mtaalamu wa vyama, vikundi vya wanawake mpya "na wengine walikuwa sumu. Hao wanafunzi pamoja juu ya masuala muhimu kama malipo sawa kwa kazi sawa, mkuu muonekano wa wanawake ndani ya mtaalamu mashirika, haki sawa marekebisho, na kadhalika. Hii ilisababisha kuundwa kwa wanawake wengi "s shinikizo la makundi hasa wale wa juu ya Maendeleo ya Wanawake
(WID). mawakili wa WID alisema kwa matukio kwamba wasomi wengi walikuwa
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aliona, hasa katika nchi zinazoendelea yaani madhara kwamba maendeleo ya yalionekana kuwa juu ya wanawake. feminization ya umaskini na idadi kubwa ya wanawake- kaya zinazoongozwa kama matokeo ya sera za maendeleo pia yalionyesha.
Pamoja na shinikizo kutoka Marekani harakati za wanawake "s, Umoja wa Mataifa alitangaza
1975 kama Wanawake wa Kimataifa "s Mwaka na 1975-1985 kama Wanawake wa Kimataifa" s
Muongo. Pamoja na hayo kulikuwa na kuongezeka kwa uelewa wa wanawake "na masuala ya kukubali madai yao kama masuala ya halali kwa ajili ya kufanya sera, katika kitaifa na kimataifa ngazi. kaulimbiu ya Muongo walikuwa - Usawa, Maendeleo na Amani. Umoja wa Mataifa
Muongo ya Wanawake na mikutano ya kimataifa ulitoa hamasa kwa sehemu ya jinsia katika maendeleo ya mijadala.
Kuangalia maendeleo yako Zoezi 3
Angalia: i. Kutumia nafasi aliyopewa chini ya kujibu maswali. ii. Linganisha jibu lako kwa moja kutokana na mwisho wa kitengo hiki.
1. Trace kuibuka kwa approache WID.
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TATU 6.6 DUNIANI mikutano WANAWAKE
Mwaka 1975, Mkutano wa Dunia kwa ajili ya Wanawake wa Kimataifa "Mwaka wa ulifanyika katika
Mexico City. Mkutano yalionyesha tofauti katika mahitaji ya wanawake kutoka
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Viwanda vingi mataifa ya Magharibi na wale wa kutoka mataifa ya kilimo. Hii mara nyingi imesababisha mijadala juu ya nini ilivyo "wanawake" masuala ya ". mbinu ya usawa ilikuwa kutambuliwa kama
"Maendeleo", lakini hasa yalijitokeza "Kwanza ulimwengu" wa jinsia kabla ya kazi na usawa.
"Pili dunia" wajumbe walikuwa na wasiwasi na amani. Walisema kuwa ubepari na militarism alikuwa kuwajibika kwa wanawake "matatizo ya. "Third World" wajumbe walikuwa wasiwasi na maendeleo. Walisema kuwa maendeleo ni muhimu ili kuboresha wanawake "s maisha. Wakati wanawake kutoka mataifa maskini walikuwa na wasiwasi hasa na maisha ya familia, nafasi za ajira na majukumu ya kisheria na kiuchumi ya wanawake, wale kutoka mataifa yaliyoendelea alisisitiza maneno ishara ya mamlaka, hadhi, na udhibiti wa moja "s mwenyewe mwili, ubaguzi dhidi ya wanawake, nk pia maana ya kupitishwa kwa mikakati mbalimbali kwa ajili ya mabadiliko katika hadhi ya wanawake.
Wasomi kama Ester Boserup, Elise Boulding na wengine, na alibainisha kuwa mara nyingi, maendeleo ya kiuchumi katika nchi maendeleo duni husababisha mabadiliko ya kimuundo kwamba dislocate wanawake kutoka kazi kuzalisha kipato, au mahali mzigo mkubwa kwa wanawake ambao kuendelea na kilimo cha kujikimu, wakati watu kuhamia katika kilimo cha kisasa, kukua mazao ya biashara au kuhamia mijini. Pia alisema kuwa kuna idadi kubwa ya zinazoongozwa na wanawake-kaya. Ilipendekezwa kwamba wanawake hawa Pia wanatakiwa kupewa kipaumbele kwa ajira sambamba na wanaume na majukumu ya familia. Mkazo pia alikuwa amelala juu ya ukweli kwamba amani pia inaweza kupatikana tu kwa kutambua kwamba wanawake, ambao kilikuwa na nusu ya dunia "s idadi ya watu, pia binadamu na haki sawa katika kiraia, kisiasa, kiuchumi na kijamii mashamba.
6.6.1 Kupambana na Umaskini Njia
Mbinu ya Equity, hata hivyo, ilionekana kuwa tishio na si maarufu kwa serikali. Ni kukosoa kama ufeministi Magharibi. Kulikuwa na kuhama kwa-Anti
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Umaskini Njia hii mbinu toned chini usawa kwa sababu ya upinzani.. Ni zaidi wasiwasi na ugawaji pamoja na ukuaji wa uchumi na mahitaji ya msingi. Lengo lake lilikuwa ni kuhakikisha wanawake maskini kuongeza uzalishaji wao, tangu wanawake "umaskini wa ilionekana kama tatizo la maendeleo duni si kuwa chini yao. Hata hivyo njia hii pekee wanawake maskini kama jamii tofauti na tabia ya kutambua mchango wa uzalishaji wao tu. Ni zaidi maarufu kati ya NGOs na maendeleo kwa kiwango kidogo.
6.6.2 Njia ufanisi
Na Umoja wa Mataifa Mid-muongo Mkutano wa Wanawake uliofanyika Copenhagen mwaka 1980, dhana ya WID alikuwa kubadilishwa kutoka usawa kwa njia ya ufanisi na ulitangazwa katika masharti ya kiuchumi. Mkutano huo inaongozwa na mijadala juu ya biashara, maendeleo na siasa. Kulikuwa na mjadala mkali juu ya suala la Palestina, madhara ya ubaguzi wa rangi kwa wanawake nchini Afrika Kusini, kwa wakimbizi wanawake duniani kote. Licha ya kutangazwa sana hoja, wanawake kutoka sehemu mbalimbali za dunia alijaribu kuelewa mtu mwingine na kujenga mtazamo zaidi ulingano. Katika mkutano huu ilikuwa kutambuliwa kuwa wanawake washiriki wote wawili walikuwa na waathirika katika mapambano ya kisiasa.
Irene Tinker katika tathmini yake ya mkutano wa Copenhagen aliuliza - "Je, wewe kuchukua moja tune na kuhimiza tofauti wakati eliciting msaada orchestral "? na majibu maoni kwa kuwa na idadi ya wasomi ilionyesha kuwa watu wengi walikuwa kuangalia mbalimbali wanawake "wa Masuala ambayo hawakupewa kutajwa, kutambulika au kusahihishwa kabla ya mwongo kuanza. Moja ya kazi kuu ya Mexico City na Copenhagen mkutano huo ni kuongeza fahamu. kuibuka kwa njia ya ufanisi katika kipindi hiki wanapaswa kuonekana katika mazingira ya utulivu kushuka kwa uchumi wa dunia na kuandamana na sera za marekebisho. Na kubwa kupunguzwa kwa matumizi ya ustawi wa jamii, kuzingatia maendeleo ufanisi maana kwamba wanawake
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kuwa watendaji muhimu katika mazingira ya maendeleo. Ni kutambuliwa wanawake "s ujasiri na uwezo wa kurekebisha na mgogoro. Wanawake katika sekta rasmi ni tayari kufanya kazi kwa masaa mengi ya kwa ajili ya kulipa kidogo, kwa kawaida aliyeajiriwa na baadaye kufukuzwa kazi mapema. Kutokana na hasara hizi katika sekta rasmi, wanawake ni tayari kukubali hali mbaya zaidi kuliko wanaume katika sekta isiyo rasmi.
Sifa zote hizi kuvutia mipango ya maendeleo kwa kuzingatia mipango yao juu ya wanawake.
Njia hizi kutambua kwamba wanawake kucheza nafasi muhimu ya kiuchumi ndani na nje ya familia. mbinu ufanisi ililenga katika mikopo kwa ajili ya wanawake, miradi ya kuzalisha kipato cha ziada kwa ajili ya wanawake, biashara ndogo ndogo kwa ajili ya wanawake na hivyo juu. Ni umakini tu katika masuala ya kiuchumi ya wanawake katika maendeleo na ilikuwa imebuniwa maslahi ya mawakala kubwa ya maendeleo badala ya wanawake wenyewe. Hii mbinu bado ni maarufu zaidi kwa hali WID mbinu nyingi za kitaifa na serikali, machineries kwa wanawake na mashirika ya misaada, pamoja na mashirika yasiyo ya kiserikali ambao ni nia ya kudumisha hali ilivyo katika jina la maendeleo ya kiuchumi bila ya kuwa na swali la msingi nguvu mahusiano katika jamii ambao wao kazi.
Katika mkutano wa tatu na ya mwisho ya miaka kumi ya kimataifa kwa wanawake katika Nairobi, vipimo mbalimbali ya wanawake "s mahitaji alikuja. Ni katika hili mkutano huo kwamba mahitaji ya "Third World" wanawake kupata kutambuliwa na walikuwa yalionyesha. Hofu kubwa ya wanawake wanaoishi katika jamii ya kujikimu walikuwa mazingira masuala, mbinu katika msitu na usimamizi wa maji, kilimo endelevu, nk Haya masuala ya walikuwa pamoja na masuala ya mazingira kwa kiwango dunia. madai ya "Dunia ya Tatu" nchi kwa mbinu ya kupunguza drudgery wa kazi ya kila siku pia kuweka mbele.
Mgawanyiko na masuala ya kisiasa kama vile mgogoro wa madeni na madhara yake kwa nchi ya Tatu "
Dunia ", suala la ubaguzi wa rangi nchini Afrika Kusini juu ya kujadiliwa. Kulikuwa na kuongezeka kutambua ukweli kwamba moja ya tatu ya familia za dunia walikuwa wanawake. The wanawake kazi kusaidia familia zao na pia kushtakiwa kwa kulea watoto.
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Kuangalia maendeleo yako Zoezi 4
Angalia: i. Kutumia nafasi aliyopewa chini ya kujibu maswali. ii. Linganisha jibu lako kwa moja kutokana na mwisho wa kitengo hiki.
1. Orodha ya kwanza ya kimataifa ya wanawake tatu "s mikutano.
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6.7 Wanawake na Maendeleo (busha) NJIA
Wanawake na Maendeleo (busha) mbinu alisema wanawake kuwa tayari kuingizwa katika mchakato wa maendeleo kwa njia unyonyaji. Hii ni kutokana na ukweli kwamba mipango kushikilia mawazo imprecise kuhusu wanawake "shughuli za maalumu na hivyo kusababisha kutelekezwa ya wanawake "s mahitaji halisi na juu-unyonyaji wa kazi zao.
Wapinzani wa mfumo wa busha ni hasa wanaharakati wa wananadharia na kutoka Kusini na wachache kutoka Kaskazini ambao waliona mapungufu ya WID na kusema kuwa wanawake kamwe kupata yao kushiriki sawa ya faida ya maendeleo kama mfumo dume na kukosekana kwa usawa duniani ni ufumbuzi.
Wanawake kutoka mataifa yaliyoendelea walikuwa polepole kutambua kwamba matatizo ya "Third
Dunia "wanawake pia halali. Walianza kutambua pamoja nao na mapema yao shupavu tabia kuelekea "Third World" wanawake kupungua. Jitihada zilifanywa kiungo masuala ya familia na ule wa siasa katika ngazi ya mikoa, kitaifa na kimataifa. The
Dunia ya Tatu inazidi harakati jinsia kuingizwa mapambano dhidi ya kukosekana kwa usawa wa kijinsia
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kwa mapambano ya kisiasa. Mkutano wa Nairobi zinazotolewa wanawake wa "Dunia ya Tatu" kama vizuri kama "Dunia Kwanza" nafasi ya kuchanganya nguvu ya kupambana na dhuluma.
Mbinu busha inatoa mtazamo muhimu zaidi ya wanawake nafasi ya "s kuliko WID. Ni ni kudhani kuwa wanawake "nafasi ya kuboresha miundo ya kimataifa mara moja kuwa zaidi ya usawa. Hata hivyo jinsi gani inaweza mabadiliko si ya wazi alielezea. Kulingana na hii mtazamo, wanawake hawakuwa rasilimali usahau lakini mzigo mzito na undervalued. Yao mchango mkubwa kwa maendeleo ya mahitaji ya kutambuliwa, pamoja na ugawaji wa na faida na mizigo kati ya wanaume na wanawake. Pia walitaka mfumo wa busha
"Usawa wa kijinsia" na Serikali kama "mwangalizi faire" katika soko mbaya zaidi tayari zilizopo usawa. 6.7.1 Uwezeshaji mbinu
Katika kipindi hiki, mbinu Uwezeshaji ilipitishwa. Tofauti na awali mbinu, njia ya uwezeshaji ni matokeo ya moja kwa moja ya "Third World" wanawake "s kijamii na ngazi ya chini na hali halisi ya harakati za uzoefu wao na ya "maendeleo" tawala.
Mizizi yake walikuwa katika harakati za Amerika ya Kusini ambapo Walimu wa kijamii kama vile Paulo Frire na Evan Ilich conseintization kutumika kama chombo cha kuhamasisha sehemu kudhulumiwa. mbinu uliojitokeza nje ya kukosoa mipango yote mengine, ambao walikuwa msingi uchambuzi wa mtaalam wa jinsi na kile "Third World" wanawake wanahitaji kuendeleza wenyewe na jumuiya zao. Mtazamo huu imeshika kasi katika miaka ya 1980 na inaendelea kuwa maarufu kati ya wanaharakati wa kijamii, watafiti wa masuala ya kijinsia, mashirika yasiyo ya kiserikali na mashirika ya misaada ambao ni dhati ya nia ya uwezo transformatory ya mipango ya maendeleo.
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uwezeshaji mbinu maswali wazo kuwa "wanawake" yanaweza kuangaliwa kama wote jamii. Zaidi ya hayo, kwa mara ya kwanza wanawake "kuwa chini ya ilionekana kama watu" s tatizo pia. mbinu uwezeshaji vidgas wigo wa nadharia ya maendeleo na kushughulikia masuala ya hata sasa si kuchukuliwa husika. Hizi ni pamoja na ukandamizaji wa kijinsia mahusiano, uharibifu wa mazingira, na maadili ya udhibiti wa kimataifa juu ya kuendeleza nchi na kadhalika. Hivyo mfumo wa uwezeshaji ulikuwa wenye kutishia serikali na mashirika ya kimataifa. Kujiajiri Wanawake "s Organization (SEWA) kuanza katika Ahmedabad, India, Benki ya Grameen (Bangladesh), ni mifano ya mafanikio ya
Mkakati wa uwezeshaji kupitia shirika.
Katika mkutano wa Nairobi, 1985 baadhi ya Dunia ya Tatu Wanawake sumu DAWN kundi
(Maendeleo ya Wanawake kwa Mbadala na New Era) ambayo tafsiri ya maendeleo masuala ya kutoka kwa mwanamke "s mtazamo. Walisema kwamba dhana ya maendeleo kufuatwa katika dunia baada ya ukoloni imekuwa kuongozwa na mfumo dume na ubepari wa magharibi wazo la maendeleo ya kiuchumi ambayo waliamini kuwa mabadiliko ni linear. Walikataa uchokozi ya mfumo wa kubwa na kutetea maadili ya nurturance na uwazi, kuondolewa uongozi na kutambuliwa na maana tofauti lakini sawa halisi ya ufeministi ya kila eneo.
Muongo wa Umoja wa Mataifa kwa wanawake kuletwa na mwanga na ukweli kwamba bado wanawake kufanya mbili ya tatu ya dunia "s kazi, lakini kupata moja ya kumi ya mapato yake mwenyewe tu na 100 ya mali yake. Kulikuwa na kutambua ukweli kwamba feminization "ya umaskini alikuwa kwenye kuongeza ". Wanawake "kushiriki katika malengo na mikakati kwa ajili ya mabadiliko na wao uwezeshaji, ndani na nje ya nyumbani, walikuwa alisisitiza kama mabadiliko ya mara kwa kutokea.
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mikutano ya Muongo wa Kimataifa wa Wanawake kuletwa kuhusu mkubwa mwingiliano na uhamasishaji wa wanawake kutoka nchi mbalimbali. Wao zinazotolewa kuendesha kwa kuchunguza matatizo ya kawaida ya wanawake duniani kote. Kawaida za viashiria vya maendeleo ya kisasa, miji, pato, ukuaji wa uchumi, mashine, mapinduzi ya kijani-nyeupe-buluu walikuwa alihoji. Wakati wa mikutano, mbalimbali maana ya "wanawake katika maendeleo" predominated mrefu. Licha ya kiuchumi maendeleo, pia ishara "usawa wa kisheria, elimu, afya, ajira na uwezeshaji ".
Haki sawa kwa wanawake na wanaume walikuwa alisisitiza mbele ya sheria katika miaka ya mwanzo. Wakati wa
Ya Wanawake "Muongo wa idadi ya mikataba ya kupita, muhimu kati ya them is the Cconvention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW). Later on, legal rights were not given great importance. Though most countries had granted women‟s equality, they were not enforced.
It was argued that women‟s status could be improved by educating them. Hata hivyo, the earlier literacy programme had failed because classes were held at the time when the women were busy with economic activities. No formal education systems were advocated and emphasis was laid on reducing gender biases within the education system.
Emphasis was laid on employing women especially in the development agencies as an effective method of ensuring that development programme reach and involve women.
Consciousness raising and empowerment of women was emphasized.
Economic development remained the main focus of „women in development‟. The attempt was to remove the gender bias in development planning that over-looked women‟s role in economic activities.
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6.7.2 The Indian Context
The UN decade for women generated a lot of data on the status of women the world over. In India, political emergency was declared in 1975. Yet in this period, the UN sponsored International Women‟s Decade provided the space for women‟s organizations to meet and discuss issues, organize seminars and so on.
It was during this period that an important and significant report on the status of women in India was published entitled the ‟Towards Equality‟ Report (in 1974 it was tabled in the parliament). The Committee on the Status of Women was appointed by the
Government of India in 1971 to look into the changes – legal, constitutional, administrative,
Political, social and economic, -- that had occurred in the status of women since
Independence. The Committee submitted its report in December 1974. Its investigations revealed the dismal reality of declining sex ratios, decreasing participation of women in employment and political activities. Illiteracy and lack of vocational training prevented women from being absorbed into the modern economy. Development itself was very uneven between different regions, communities and sections of society.
The low status of women in society was indicated by a number of factors such as – the age of marriage of girls was below 15 years in more than 1/3 of the districts of India. The life expectation for females was 45 years as compared to 47 years for males in 1961-71. The gap in male and female life expectation was in fact increasing. The female mortality rate was much higher than that of males especially in the age group of 15-44 years. Though there has been an increase in the female population, the number of females per thousand males has been declining. In 1901, it was 972 females per thousand males, but by 1971, it had declined to 930 females per thousand males and in 1991 it had declined further to 929 women per thousand males. One of the reasons for the low sex ratio, it is observed, is the high maternal
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mortality. In 1964, it was 252 per 1,00,000 live births in the whole country, and in 1968, it went up to 573 for 1,00,000 live births in rural areas. Maternal mortality has been mainly due to frequent pregnancies, abortions, malnutrition, etc. another reason is rampant female featicide and infanticide.
The literacy rate among women was much lower than for males – 18.4% and 39.5% respectively. The number of women in the labour force came down from 34.4% in 1911 to
17.35% in 1971. 94% of the women workers are found in the unorganized sector and the rest
6% in the organized sector. It was also noted that a majority of women did not make use of the rights and opportunities guaranteed by the Constitution. There has been an increase in the incidence of dowry in the urban as well as rural areas and also among communities which did not follow this practice earlier.
This report demystified the popular belief that equality between the sexes had been guaranteed by the Constitution. The mid-sixties witnessed an economic crisis, stagnation, inflation and increasing lawlessness. There was general discontentment and displeasure in society, especially among the youth and working class. All over the world there were strong protests by students, trade unions and anti-price rise movements as well as anti-war and colonial liberation movements.
In India too, in the seventies, there were student protests, anti-price rise morchas , tribal revolts, and the Naxalbari movement. Women participated in large numbers in these movements. A number of radical activists started autonomous groups involved with education, popular science (KSSP – Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad), health, environmental protection, civil liberties, women‟s issues, tribal issues. Involvement with the anti-price rise protests, student and tribal movements, made the women realize the importance of taking up issues related to the oppression of women, violence in the family, dowry, alcoholism, sexual
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discrimination against women. It was in the decade of the 1970s that the “Third World” began to emerge as a challenge and a force to reckon with. This heralded the critiques of
„development‟ and „under-development‟ in the “Third World” countries from both feminist and others.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
Note: i. Use the space given below to answer the questions. ii. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Is the Empowerment approach drawn from WAD?
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6.8 CRITIQUE OF WID
The main critique of Women in Development came „from three sources: - Marxist feminists, women from the developing countries and scholars who sympathized with the female sphere approach‟. In their effort to influence the development experts, the advocate practitioners and scholars of the WID approach did not „raise basic theoretical issues‟, but instead, sought to adjust the contemporary „development practices to include and benefit
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women‟. As the field developed, the pragmatic approach of the WID practitioners and advocates and the detail of women‟s lives coming from WID scholars began to influence the theorists. The theorists then raised questions about the global power structures, values etc. which were more relevant.
The Marxist feminists have questioned the constitution of women as a „category‟.
They argue that biological sex has been misunderstood as gender relations through social, cultural, political and economic forces. However, women‟s interests vary by class. But one common factor, among women of all classes and in all societies, is their subordinate position in society. The main cause of this is class and patriarchy. While Marxists and other feminists would try to change this situation and fight for equality, the feminists who argue for a female sphere, would emphasise the difference. Over the years, other factors of subordination of women have come up like race in the USA, colonialism, underdevelopment and dependency in the “Third World” and the intricacies of caste, religion and ethnicity in India.
Development programmes that are supposed to help women with their practical and material problems and to address the causes of their subordination often end up perpetuating it. What is required, therefore, is feminism that provides a political basis for bringing women of all classes together despite their differences.
Throughout the Decade, the effort was to associate value and status to women‟s work.
But often, the emphasis has been on economic activities. Though women have worked for long hours, be it in subsistence societies or the new industries of developing societies, their work has not been valued and they have not got high status. The effort now is to decrease the woman‟s work and simultaneously empower her. This would need an examination of the controls on woman‟s labour and hence an examination of the household and the issue of patriarchy. [pic]
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The female sphere theorists argue that the demand for equality of work for a just and egalitarian society may be disadvantageous for women. In a society where women enjoyed autonomy in the private sphere, for the sake of family however, they are withdrawn from the visible public labour force and are made economically dependent. However, many women have chosen to retain their economic independence.
Yet another perspective is put forward by scholars like Elise Boulding, who argue that women have developed the quality of nurturing, survival and peace. It is these feminine values that will save the earth and not the male values of ruling and conquering. The need is for environment-friendly technology and efforts towards peace.
The DAWN report points out the connection between global economic policies and women at the local, national and international levels. The economic crises, ecological degradation, increasing militarism and so on are all linked to the global policies. Scholars have pointed out how the debt crises, the structural adjustment policies and the macro-level development policies have had differential effects on male and female work, and how they perpetuate gender bias in market policies. Rae Blumberg argues that the African food crisis was the result of macro-level development policies that overlooked the importance of women‟s contribution to economic development.
Kathryn Ward, in her work „Women in the Global Economy‟, argues that women‟s economic status has stagnated due to underdevelopment processes. Increasingly, women are pushed into subsistence agriculture or the service or informal sectors. Until the coming of transnational corporations, women did not get industrial employment. However, even this employment is not permanent and they are once again displaced into the service sectors.
Ward argues that women‟s status has been structured both directly and indirectly by the global capitalist system. She highlights three processes of trade dependency, dependent
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development, and debt dependency as being particularly important in shaping women‟s status. As a result of this global capitalist system, the peripheral regions within this system experience socio-economic dependence on the core nations along with underdevelopment.
The major problems with the WID approach are as follows.
( WID considers women as a homogeneous group. It ignores the fact that women are not a single uniform category. Women are differentiated by racial, economic and other factors which are not considered important.
( WID projects the myth that women‟s development ca n be achieved by addressing economic issues alone. Yet in a context where women are not allowed to own property and do not have control over resources, it is questionable how income generating projects can lead to women‟s maendeleo. ( It does not question the kind of development that is being imposed on the nchi zinazoendelea. WID does not have any scope for change and transformation. It does not challenge existing power relations in society.
Hence it has remained popular.
However, since the early 1980s WID came under severe attack, mainly from “Third
World” women‟s movements, who are questioning the relevance of such development programmes in the context of continuing poverty and oppression. This has led to a rethinking of the WID approach and resulted in the emergence of the Gender and Development approach or GAD.
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6.9 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT (GAD) APPROACH
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GAD, which shares elements with the empowerment approach, gained popularity in the 1980s and attempts to address the loopholes of WID. It is rooted in post-development theory and post-structuralist critiques in feminism.
GAD does not consider women as a uniform group. It maintains that women‟s situation should be seen in the context of the socio-economic, racial and other factors that shape a particular society. It points to the importance of understanding the relationship between women and men and how society influences their respective roles. Development to be meaningful will have to take all these factors into consideration.
This approach rejects the dichotomy between the public and the private. It focuses attention on the oppression of women in the family, within the private sphere of the household. It emphasizes the state‟s role in providing social services to promote women‟s emancipation. Women are seen as agents of change rather than passive recipients of maendeleo. The focus is on strengthening women‟s legal rights. It also talks in terms of upsetting the existing power relations in society. Gender is an issue that cuts across all economic, social and political processes. The GAD approach attempts to identify both the practical gender needs of women as well as the strategic gender needs that are closely related.
The problem with GAD is that it is easy in the name of gender, to disguise and even side track real issues that affect women. Gender can rise above the personal, which means the personal can remain behind the scene, despite all the efforts that go into the analysis of
„social construction of gender‟.
Most often, however, GAD is seen as just a new label for the same old women‟s programmes which do not address power relations in society or women‟s oppression. Though
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it is popular among funding agencies and NGOs and has the potential to be different, it has become institutionalized like WID.
Check Your Progress Exercise 6
Note: i. Use the space given below to answer the questions. ii. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. What is GAD?
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2. How is GAD different from other approaches?
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6.10 FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN
At the Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing in December 1995, the mood was sombre, reflecting the turmoil of the past decade - - the global economic crises, the collapse of most communist regimes, unmitigated ethnic conflict and growing conservatism.
This is reflected in the disproportionate burden borne by women. Statistics showed that
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women today constitute 70% of the world‟s 1.3 billion poor, 2/3 rd of the illiterates and (with their children) 80% of the 25 million refugees mostly victims of armed conflict.
The single most critical issue at the conference was women‟s experience of the economic crises: Southern women reeling under structural adjustment; East European women faced with rising unemployment and collapse of state-provided welfare services, and Western women faced with sharp cuts in public expenditure on health, education and welfare.
The important outcome at Beijing was the new recognition by both NGOs and governments that macro-economic policy is also an issue of critical importance for women and therefore a feminist concern. Furthermore, it was important not just to be reactive after policies have done their damage, but to be creative in framing alternatives. The „Beijing
Platform for Action‟ recognizes the link between the economic and the political. Eradication of poverty cannot be accomplished through anti-poverty programmes alone, but will require democratic participation and changes in economic structures to ensure access for all women to resources, opportunities and public services.
Check Your Progress Exercise 7
Note: i. Use the space given below to answer the questions. ii. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Where was the Fourth World Conference on Women held?
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2. What are the key issue discussed at the conference?
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6.11 SUMMING UP
In conclusion, the significant issues that emerge are: In the 60‟s and 70‟s women voiced their dissent and protest through the mass movements as well as autonomous feminist vikundi. The „Western‟ model of development as the role-model was not only questioned but women activists in the Third World refused the label of “always and already victims” that the
Western feminists had accorded them. This translated into viewing women, not as passive recipients of development but as active agents in the process.
The issues of gender, nationality and ethnicity within the context of the global political economy came into focus; rightly questioning thereby the „woman‟ as subject of feminist debates.
The increasing marginalization of women in the economy, their increasing landlessness and lack of access to resources had resulted in feminization of poverty. A significant relationship between the feminization of poverty and female-headed households was brought into focus.
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6.12 GLOSSARY
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Economic Development: The progress of the economy in means of quality and quantity is known as economic development. It also means the development and adoption of new technologies, transition from agricultural economy to industrial economy and improvement in the standard of living of people.
Marginalization: Marginalization is a social process which pushes some sections of the population outside the mainstream or being made to be at the margins of society. They are excluded or ignored in the mainstream development process.
Laissez Faire : It is policy or practice of Government letting people act without interference or direction of government to have their industry, business etc. which lead to economic ukuaji wa uchumi. There would not be any conditions imposed by government and no regulation and control. Decolonization: Decolonization is being free from the colonial status. It is getting independence status from the country which has control over them and treats them as their colony. GNP: GNP means Gross National Product. It is the total value of final goods and services produced within a country in a particular year by its citizens. It is one of the measures of economic conditions in the country.
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6.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXCERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1:
1. Lack of economic growth is considered as under development. This is measured in terms of GDP.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2:
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1. Esther Boserup
Check Your Progress Exercise 3:
1. The pressure from the Third World women group led to the emergence of WID approach. In this approach the status of women on par with men was discussed in terms of equality. This was emerged in the year 1975.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4:
1. Mexico – 1975
2. Nairobi – 1980
3. Copenhagen – 1985
Check Your Progress Exercise 5:
1. Yes, in WAD period, the Empowerment approach was adopted . Unlike the previous approaches, the empowerment approach is a direct result of “Third World” women‟s social and grassroots movements and their realities and experiences of mainstream
„development‟. Its roots were in Latin American social movements where educationists such as Paulo Frire and Evan Ilich used conseintization as a tool of mobilizing oppressed sections.
Check Your Progress Exercise 6:
1. GAD means Gender and Development.
2. GAD doesn‟t consider women as a uniform group.
Check Your Progress Exercise 7:
1. Beijing - 1995
2. Representation of women in social, political and economic institutions.
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6.14 REFERENCES
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Banuri, T., “Modernization and its discontents: A critical perspective on theories of
Development”, In FA Marglin and SA Marglin, ed., Dominating Knowledge:
Development, Culture and Resistance , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.
Beneria, L. and G. Sen, “Accumulation, Reproduction, and Women‟s Role in Economic
Development: Boserup Revisited”, SIGNS , Winter, vol. 7(2), pp. 279-298, 1981.
Blumberg, RL, “Towards a Feminist Theory of Development”, In RA Wallace, eds.,
Feminism and Sociological Theory , Newbury Park, CA: Sage publications, 1989.
Boserup, E., Women's Role in Economic Development , London: Allen and Unwin, 1970.
Gaidzanwa, R., JF O‟Barr, I. Tinker et al., “Reflections on forum‟ 85 in Nairobi, Kenya:
Voices from the International Women‟s Studies Community”, SIGNS . Spring. 11(3), pp. 584-
606, 1986.
Gilligan, C., In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development ,
Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982.
Huntington, S., “Issues in Women‟s Role in Economic Development: Critique and
Alternatives”, Journal of Marriage and the Family . 37(4), pp. 1001-12, 1975.
Kabir, N., Reversed Realities- Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought , New Delhi:
Kali for Women, 1996.
Larrain, J., Theories of Development: Capitalism, Colonialism and Dependency , London:
Polity Press, 1989.
Marglin, FA and SA Marglin, ed., Dominating Knowledge: Development, Culture and
Resistance , Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.
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Mohanty, CT, “Through Western Eyes”, Boundary , No. XVII (Reprinted by Vikas
Adhyayan Kendra), 1992.
Moser, CON, Gender Planning and Development- Theory, Practice and Training , New
York: Routledge, 1993.
Nandy, A., Science, Hegemony and Violence: A Requiem for Modernity , Oxford: University
Press, 1989.
Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India, Towards Equality , 1974, Delhi:
Government of India, 1975.
Sen, G. and C. Grown., Development Crises and Alternative visions: Third World Women's
Perspectives . 2 nd edition. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987. (Written for the project
Development Alternatives for Women in a New Era: DAWN. First edition without author‟s names published by DAWN 1985).
SIGNS, 1975 Report of the World Conference of the UN Decade for Women – Equality,
Development and Peace . Copenhagen. 1980. UN Publication, A/CONF. 94/35.
Report of the World Conference of the International Women's Year . Mexico City. 1975. Mpya
York: UN Publication, E/CONF. 66/34.
Report of the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the UN
Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace . Nairobi, Kenya. 1985. UN
Publication, A/CONF. 116/28.
Tinker, I. , Persistent Inequalities- Women and World Development , New York: Oxford
University Press, 1990.
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Ward, K., “Women in the Global Economy”, In Gutek, Strombek and Larwood, ed., Women and Work: An Annual Review , London: Sage Publications, 1988.
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6.15 QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND PRACTICE
1. Elaborate Boserup‟s contribution to visibility of women and development.
2. Describe the emergence of the WID approach.
3. Trace the WID approach through the first three world conferences.
4. Elaborate the GAD approach

Check Your Progress Exercise 4
Note: i. Use the space given below to answer the questions. ii. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. List the first three international women’s conferences.

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6.7 WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT (WAD) APPROACH
The Women and Development (WAD) approach pointed out that women are already integrated into the development process in an exploitative way. This is due to the fact that planners hold imprecise assumptions about women’s specific activities leading to the neglect of women’s real needs and over-exploitation of their labor.
Proponents of the WAD approach are mainly activists and theorists from the South and few from the North who saw the limitations of WID and argued that women would never get their equal share of development benefits unless patriarchy and global inequality are addressed.
Women from the developed nations were slowly realizing that the concerns of “Third World” women were also legitimate. They began to identify with them and their earlier patronizing attitude towards “Third World” women diminished. Efforts were made to link issues of the family with that of politics at the local, national and international levels. The Third World feminist movement increasingly incorporated struggles against sexual inequality with political struggles. The gathering at Nairobi provided women of the “Third World” as well as the “First World” the chance to combine forces to fight against injustice.
The WAD approach provides a more critical view of women‟s position than WID. It is assumed that women‟s position will improve once international structures become more equitable. However how these could change is not clearly explained. According to this perspective, women were not a neglected resource but overburdened and undervalued. Their substantial contribution to development needs to be recognized, along with a redistribution of its benefits and burdens between men and women. The WAD approach also demanded “affirmative action” by the State as “Laissez Faire” in the market worsened already existing inequalities.

6.7.1 Empowerment approach
In this period, the Empowerment approach was adopted. Unlike the previous approaches, the empowerment approach is a direct result of “Third World” women‟s social and grassroots movements and their realities and experiences of mainstream „development‟. Its roots were in Latin American social movements where educationists such as Paulo Frire and Evan Ilich used conseintization as a tool of mobilizing oppressed sections.
The approach emerged out of a critique of all other approaches, which were based on the expert analysis of how and what “Third World” women need to develop themselves and their communities. This approach gained momentum in the 1980s and continues to be popular among social activists, feminist researchers, NGOs and Aid agencies who are genuinely interested in the transformatory potential of development initiatives.
The empowerment approach questions the notion that „women‟ can be addressed as a universal category. Further, for the first time women‟s subordination was seen as a men‟s problem as well.
The empowerment approach broadened the scope of development theory by addressing issues hitherto not considered relevant. These included oppressive gender relations, ecological destruction, and the ethics of multinational control over the developing countries and so on. Thus the empowerment approach became most threatening to government and international agencies. The Self- Employed Women‟s Organization (SEWA) started in Ahmedabad, India; the Grameen Bank (Bangladesh), are examples of the success of the strategy of empowerment through organization.
At the Nairobi conference, 1985 some Third World Women formed a group DAWN (Development Alternatives with Women for a New Era) which interpreted development issues from the woman‟s perspective. They pointed out that the concept of development followed in the post-colonial world has been guided by a western patriarchal and capitalist idea of economic development which believed that change is linear. They rejected the aggressiveness of the dominant system and advocated the values of nurturance and openness, discarded hierarchy and recognized the diverse but equally genuine meanings of feminism of every area.
The UN decade for women brought to light the fact that women still perform two-thirds of the world‟s work, but earn one tenth of its income and own only one hundredth of its property. There was recognition of the fact that the „feminization of poverty was on the increase‟ . Women‟s participation in the goals and strategies for change and their empowerment, both within and outside the home, were stressed if change was to occur.
The conferences of the International Decade for Women brought about greater interaction and mobilization of women from various countries. They provided the motive to investigate the common concerns of women worldwide. Conventional indicators of development-modernization, urbanization, per capita income, growth of the economy, mechanization, white-green-blue revolution were questioned. During the conferences, the various meanings of the term „women in development‟ predominated. Besides economic development, it also signified „legal equality, education, health, employment and empowerment‟ .
Equal rights for women and men before law were stressed in the early years. During the International Women‟s Decade a number of conventions were passed, important among them is the Cconvention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Later on, legal rights were not given great importance. Though most countries had granted women‟s equality, they were not enforced.
It was argued that women‟s status could be improved by educating them. However, the earlier literacy programme had failed because classes were held at the time when the women were busy with economic activities. No formal education systems were advocated and emphasis was laid on reducing gender biases within the education system.
Emphasis was laid on employing women especially in the development agencies as an effective method of ensuring that development programme reach and involve women. Consciousness raising and empowerment of women was emphasized.
Economic development remained the main focus of „women in development‟. The attempt was to remove the gender bias in development planning that over-looked women‟s role in economic activities.
6.7.2 The Indian Context
The U.N. decade for women generated a lot of data on the status of women the world over. In India, political emergency was declared in 1975. Yet in this period, the UN sponsored International Women‟s Decade provided the space for women‟s organizations to meet and discuss issues, organize seminars and so on.
It was during this period that an important and significant report on the status of women in India was published entitled the ‟Towards Equality‟ Report (in 1974 it was tabled in the parliament). The Committee on the Status of Women was appointed by the Government of India in 1971 to look into the changes – legal, constitutional, administrative, political, social and economic, -- that had occurred in the status of women since Independence. The Committee submitted its report in December 1974. Its investigations revealed the dismal reality of declining sex ratios, decreasing participation of women in employment and political activities. Illiteracy and lack of vocational training prevented women from being absorbed into the modern economy. Development itself was very uneven between different regions, communities and sections of society.
The low status of women in society was indicated by a number of factors such as – the age of marriage of girls was below 15 years in more than 1/3 of the districts of India. The life expectation for females was 45 years as compared to 47 years for males in 1961-71. The gap in male and female life expectation was in fact increasing. The female mortality rate was much higher than that of males especially in the age group of 15-44 years. Though there has been an increase in the female population, the number of females per thousand males has been declining. In 1901, it was 972 females per thousand males, but by 1971, it had declined to 930 females per thousand males and in 1991 it had declined further to 929 women per thousand males. One of the reasons for the low sex ratio, it is observed, is the high maternal mortality. In 1964, it was 252 per 1,00,000 live births in the whole country, and in 1968, it went up to 573 for 1,00,000 live births in rural areas. Maternal mortality has been mainly due to frequent pregnancies, abortions, malnutrition, etc. another reason is rampant female featicide and infanticide.
The literacy rate among women was much lower than for males – 18.4% and 39.5% respectively. The number of women in the labour force came down from 34.4% in 1911 to 17.35% in 1971. 94% of the women workers are found in the unorganized sector and the rest 6% in the organized sector. It was also noted that a majority of women did not make use of the rights and opportunities guaranteed by the Constitution. There has been an increase in the incidence of dowry in the urban as well as rural areas and also among communities which did not follow this practice earlier.
This report demystified the popular belief that equality between the sexes had been guaranteed by the Constitution. The mid-sixties witnessed an economic crisis, stagnation, inflation and increasing lawlessness. There was general discontentment and displeasure in society, especially among the youth and working class. All over the world there were strong protests by students, trade unions and anti-price rise movements as well as anti-war and colonial liberation movements.
In India too, in the seventies, there were student protests, anti-price rise morchas, tribal revolts, and the Naxalbari movement. Women participated in large numbers in these movements. A number of radical activists started autonomous groups involved with education, popular science (KSSP – Kerala Shastra Sahitya Parishad), health, environmental protection, civil liberties, women‟s issues, tribal issues. Involvement with the anti-price rise protests, student and tribal movements, made the women realize the importance of taking up issues related to the oppression of women, violence in the family, dowry, alcoholism, sexual discrimination against women. It was in the decade of the 1970s that the “Third World” began to emerge as a challenge and a force to reckon with. This heralded the critiques of „development‟ and „under-development‟ in the “Third World” countries from both feminist and others.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
Note: i. Use the space given below to answer the questions. ii. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Is the Empowerment approach drawn from WAD?

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6.8 CRITIQUE OF WID
The main critique of Women in Development came „from three sources: - Marxist feminists, women from the developing countries and scholars who sympathized with the female sphere approach‟. In their effort to influence the development experts, the advocate practitioners and scholars of the WID approach did not „raise basic theoretical issues‟, but instead, sought to adjust the contemporary „development practices to include and benefit women‟. As the field developed, the pragmatic approach of the WID practitioners and advocates and the detail of women‟s lives coming from WID scholars began to influence the theorists. The theorists then raised questions about the global power structures, values etc. which were more relevant.
The Marxist feminists have questioned the constitution of women as a „category‟. They argue that biological sex has been misunderstood as gender relations through social, cultural, political and economic forces. However, women‟s interests vary by class. But one common factor, among women of all classes and in all societies, is their subordinate position in society. The main cause of this is class and patriarchy. While Marxists and other feminists would try to change this situation and fight for equality, the feminists who argue for a female sphere, would emphasise the difference. Over the years, other factors of subordination of women have come up like race in the USA, colonialism, underdevelopment and dependency in the “Third World” and the intricacies of caste, religion and ethnicity in India.
Development programmes that are supposed to help women with their practical and material problems and to address the causes of their subordination often end up perpetuating it. What is required, therefore, is feminism that provides a political basis for bringing women of all classes together despite their differences.
Throughout the Decade, the effort was to associate value and status to women‟s work. But often, the emphasis has been on economic activities. Though women have worked for long hours, be it in subsistence societies or the new industries of developing societies, their work has not been valued and they have not got high status. The effort now is to decrease the woman‟s work and simultaneously empower her. This would need an examination of the controls on woman‟s labour and hence an examination of the household and the issue of patriarchy.
The female sphere theorists argue that the demand for equality of work for a just and egalitarian society may be disadvantageous for women. In a society where women enjoyed autonomy in the private sphere, for the sake of family however, they are withdrawn from the visible public labour force and are made economically dependent. However, many women have chosen to retain their economic independence.
Yet another perspective is put forward by scholars like Elise Boulding, who argue that women have developed the quality of nurturing, survival and peace. It is these feminine values that will save the earth and not the male values of ruling and conquering. The need is for environment-friendly technology and efforts towards peace.
The DAWN report points out the connection between global economic policies and women at the local, national and international levels. The economic crises, ecological degradation, increasing militarism and so on are all linked to the global policies. Scholars have pointed out how the debt crises, the structural adjustment policies and the macro-level development policies have had differential effects on male and female work, and how they perpetuate gender bias in market policies. Rae Blumberg argues that the African food crisis was the result of macro-level development policies that overlooked the importance of women‟s contribution to economic development.
Kathryn Ward, in her work „Women in the Global Economy‟, argues that women‟s economic status has stagnated due to underdevelopment processes. Increasingly, women are pushed into subsistence agriculture or the service or informal sectors. Until the coming of transnational corporations, women did not get industrial employment. However, even this employment is not permanent and they are once again displaced into the service sectors.
Ward argues that women‟s status has been structured both directly and indirectly by the global capitalist system. She highlights three processes of trade dependency, dependent development, and debt dependency as being particularly important in shaping women‟s status. As a result of this global capitalist system, the peripheral regions within this system experience socio-economic dependence on the core nations along with underdevelopment.
The major problems with the WID approach are as follows.
• WID considers women as a homogeneous group. It ignores the fact that women are not a single uniform category. Women are differentiated by racial, economic and other factors which are not considered important.
• WID projects the myth that women‟s development can be achieved by addressing economic issues alone. Yet in a context where women are not allowed to own property and do not have control over resources, it is questionable how income generating projects can lead to women‟s development.
• It does not question the kind of development that is being imposed on the developing countries. WID does not have any scope for change and transformation. It does not challenge existing power relations in society. Hence it has remained popular.

However, since the early 1980s WID came under severe attack, mainly from “Third World” women‟s movements, who are questioning the relevance of such development programmes in the context of continuing poverty and oppression. This has led to a rethinking of the WID approach and resulted in the emergence of the Gender and Development approach or GAD.
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6.9 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT (GAD) APPROACH
GAD, which shares elements with the empowerment approach, gained popularity in the 1980s and attempts to address the loopholes of WID. It is rooted in post-development theory and post-structuralist critiques in feminism.
GAD does not consider women as a uniform group. It maintains that women‟s situation should be seen in the context of the socio-economic, racial and other factors that shape a particular society. It points to the importance of understanding the relationship between women and men and how society influences their respective roles. Development to be meaningful will have to take all these factors into consideration.
This approach rejects the dichotomy between the public and the private. It focuses attention on the oppression of women in the family, within the private sphere of the household. It emphasizes the state‟s role in providing social services to promote women‟s emancipation. Women are seen as agents of change rather than passive recipients of development.
The focus is on strengthening women‟s legal rights. It also talks in terms of upsetting the existing power relations in society. Gender is an issue that cuts across all economic, social and political processes. The GAD approach attempts to identify both the practical gender needs of women as well as the strategic gender needs that are closely related.
The problem with GAD is that it is easy in the name of gender, to disguise and even side track real issues that affect women. Gender can rise above the personal, which means the personal can remain behind the scene, despite all the efforts that go into the analysis of „social construction of gender‟.
Most often, however, GAD is seen as just a new label for the same old women‟s programmes which do not address power relations in society or women‟s oppression. Though it is popular among funding agencies and NGOs and has the potential to be different, it has become institutionalized like WID.
Check Your Progress Exercise 6
Note: i. Use the space given below to answer the questions. ii. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. What is GAD?

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2. How is GAD different from other approaches?

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6.10 FOURTH WORLD CONFERENCE ON WOMEN
At the Fourth World Conference on Women held in Beijing in December 1995, the mood was sombre, reflecting the turmoil of the past decade - - the global economic crises, the collapse of most communist regimes, unmitigated ethnic conflict and growing conservatism. This is reflected in the disproportionate burden borne by women. Statistics showed that
Women today constitute 70% of the world’s 1.3 billion poor, 2/3rd of the illiterates and (with their children) 80% of the 25 million refugees mostly victims of armed conflict.
The single most critical issue at the conference was women’s experience of the economic crises: Southern women reeling under structural adjustment; East European women faced with rising unemployment and collapse of state-provided welfare services, and Western women faced with sharp cuts in public expenditure on health, education and welfare.
The important outcome at Beijing was the new recognition by both NGOs and governments that macro-economic policy is also an issue of critical importance for women and therefore a feminist concern. Furthermore, it was important not just to be reactive after policies have done their damage, but to be creative in framing alternatives. The „Beijing Platform for Action‟ recognizes the link between the economic and the political. Eradication of poverty cannot be accomplished through anti-poverty programes alone, but will require democratic participation and changes in economic structures to ensure access for all women to resources, opportunities and public services.
Check Your Progress Exercise 7
Note: i. Use the space given below to answer the questions. ii. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
1. Where was the Fourth World Conference on Women held?

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2. What are the key issues discussed at the conference?

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6.11 SUMMING UP
In conclusion, the significant issues that emerge are: In the 60‟s and 70‟s women voiced their dissent and protest through the mass movements as well as autonomous feminist groups.
The „Western‟ model of development as the role-model was not only questioned but women activists in the Third World refused the label of “always and already victims” that the Western feminists had accorded them. This translated into viewing women, not as passive recipients of development but as active agents in the process.
The issues of gender, nationality and ethnicity within the context of the global political economy came into focus; rightly questioning thereby the „woman‟ as subject of feminist debates.
The increasing marginalization of women in the economy, their increasing landlessness and lack of access to resources had resulted in feminization of poverty. A significant relationship between the feminization of poverty and female-headed households was brought into focus.
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6.12 GLOSSARY
Economic Development: The progress of the economy in means of quality and quantity is known as economic development. It also means the development and adoption of new technologies, transition from agricultural economy to industrial economy and improvement in the standard of living of people.
Marginalization: Marginalization is a social process which pushes some sections of the population outside the mainstream or being made to be at the margins of society. They are excluded or ignored in the mainstream development process.
Laissez Faire: It is policy or practice of Government letting people act without interference or direction of government to have their industry, business etc. which lead to economic growth. There would not be any conditions imposed by government and no regulation and control.
Decolonization: Decolonization is being free from the colonial status. It is getting independence status from the country which has control over them and treats them as their colony.
GNP: GNP means Gross National Product. It is the total value of final goods and services produced within a country in a particular year by its citizens. It is one of the measures of economic conditions in the country.
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6.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXCERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1:
1. Lack of economic growth is considered as under development. This is measured in terms of GDP.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2:

1. Esther Boserup

Check Your Progress Exercise 3:
1. The pressure from the Third World women group led to the emergence of WID approach. In this approach the status of women on par with men was discussed in terms of equality. This was emerged in the year 1975.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4:
1. Mexico – 1975

2. Nairobi – 1980

3. Copenhagen – 1985

Check Your Progress Exercise 5:
1. Yes, in WAD period, the Empowerment approach was adopted. Unlike the previous approaches, the empowerment approach is a direct result of “Third World” women‟s social and grassroots movements and their realities and experiences of mainstream „development‟. Its roots were in Latin American social movements where educationists such as Paulo Frire and Evan Ilich used conseintization as a tool of mobilizing oppressed sections.

Check Your Progress Exercise 6:
1. GAD means Gender and Development.

2. GAD doesn‟t consider women as a uniform group.

Check Your Progress Exercise 7:
1. Beijing - 1995

2. Representation of women in social, political and economic institutions.

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6.14 REFERENCES
Banuri, T., “Modernization and its discontents: A critical perspective on theories of Development”, In F.A. Marglin and S.A. Marglin, ed., Dominating Knowledge: Development, Culture and Resistance, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.
Beneria, L. and G. Sen, “Accumulation, Reproduction, and Women‟s Role in Economic Development: Boserup Revisited”, SIGNS, Winter, vol. 7(2), pp. 279-298, 1981.
Blumberg, R.L., “Towards a Feminist Theory of Development”, In R.A. Wallace, eds., Feminism and Sociological Theory, Newbury Park, CA: Sage publications, 1989.
Boserup, E., Women’s Role in Economic Development, London: Allen and Unwin, 1970.
Gaidzanwa, R., J.F. O‟Barr, I. Tinker et al., “Reflections on forum‟ 85 in Nairobi, Kenya: Voices from the International Women‟s Studies Community”, SIGNS. Spring. 11(3), pp. 584-606, 1986.
Gilligan, C., In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982.
Huntington, S., “Issues in Women‟s Role in Economic Development: Critique and Alternatives”, Journal of Marriage and the Family. 37(4), pp. 1001-12, 1975.
Kabir, N., Reversed Realities- Gender Hierarchies in Development Thought, New Delhi: Kali for Women, 1996.
Larrain, J., Theories of Development: Capitalism, Colonialism and Dependency, London: Polity Press, 1989.
Marglin, F.A. and S.A. Marglin, ed., Dominating Knowledge: Development, Culture and Resistance, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990.
Mohanty, C.T., “Through Western Eyes”, Boundary, No. XVII (Reprinted by Vikas Adhyayan Kendra), 1992.
Moser, C.O.N.,Gender Planning and Development- Theory, Practice and Training, New York: Routledge, 1993.
Nandy, A., Science, Hegemony and Violence: A Requiem for Modernity, Oxford: University Press, 1989.
Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India, Towards Equality, 1974, Delhi: Government of India, 1975.
Sen, G. and C. Grown., Development Crises and Alternative visions: Third World Women’s Perspectives. 2nd edition. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1987. (Written for the project Development Alternatives for Women in a New Era: DAWN. First edition without author‟s names published by DAWN 1985).
SIGNS, 1975 Report of the World Conference of the U.N. Decade for Women – Equality, Development and Peace. Copenhagen. 1980. U.N. Publication, A/CONF. 94/35.
Report of the World Conference of the International Women’s Year. Mexico City. 1975. New York: U.N. Publication, E/CONF. 66/34.
Report of the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the U.N. Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace. Nairobi, Kenya. 1985. U.N. Publication, A/CONF. 116/28.
Tinker, I. , Persistent Inequalities- Women and World Development, New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
Ward, K., “Women in the Global Economy”, In Gutek, Strombek and Larwood, ed., Women and Work: An Annual Review, London: Sage Publications, 1988.
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6.15 QUESTIONS FOR REFLECTION AND PRACTICE
1. Elaborate Boserup‟s contribution to visibility of women and development.

2. Describe the emergence of the WID approach.

3. Trace the WID approach through the first three world conferences.

4. Elaborate the GAD approach