Genocide Foundations
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Genocide Foundations

Introduction

Over the years, genocide studies receive positive and negative influences from both the cultural and political contexts. The two contexts have extensively influenced the view of genocide. The major view of genocide is that it is a domestic occurrence of states. On a literal perspective, various authors have contributed to the subject of genocide. The assignment looks to extensively explore the foundations of genocide based on book reviews. The paper will provide an in-depth analysis and reviews of three books on genocide, What is Genocide by Martin Shaw, Centuries of Genocide by Totten and On the nature of genocidal intent by Campbell.

Shaw, M. (2007). What is Genocide? Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN: 0745631827.

Martin Shaw’s takes up the subject of defining genocide in all contexts. Through the book, What is Genocide, Shaw seeks to address two major issues related to genocide definition.

• Unchanging definition of genocide

• Reasons and need for changing definition of genocide

Modern comprehension of the genocide ideology arises from a historical and contemporary viewpoint. It is evident over the years that the definition of genocide has undergone minimal change. In the book, the author offers key reasons for the unchanging definition of genocide while at the same time offering major reasons for the need to make the necessary changes (Shaw, 2007). Different reasons contribute to the unchanging definition of genocide. In the past years, people paid minimal attention to the criminological and sociological aspects of the crime of genocide. For instance, the legal aspect working on the definition of genocide did not consider the major reasons contributing to the occurrence of genocide. The legalists working on the legal definition of genocide failed to consider genocide motives as elements of the crime. In the recent times, social scientists seek to incorporate the limiting acts of genocide in the definition of the crime.

Shaw (2007), highlights the fact that unprotected groups were left out of the genocide definition. In this regard, modern comprehension of genocide lacks various aspects in its definition to make it comprehensive. Some of the perspectives include political and social scientists that strive to include ideologies from the minority groups. Initially, genocide was defined as crimes against humanity. However, over years, crimes against humanity ranges to include aspects such as widespread and systematic crimes against all civilians. Shaw explains in the book that the definition of genocide as defined by the Convention has remained untouched since 1948 (Shaw, 2007). It is therefore, important that contemporary parties incorporate new meaning and understanding of genocide.

History is full of human violence against each other. The mid-twentieth century gave birth to the academia and human rights activist spheres with a new concept of human destructive behavior termed as genocide. Shaw explains that various episodes of genocide have occurred in the world with the earliest genocide being witnessed in 1915. The latest one being in 1994. According to the author, the occurrence of the genocides is quite alarming as the numbers are too high. For this reason, the subject of genocide has caught attention of different people and institutions including human rights activists, academicians, and social scientists (Shaw, 2007). Despite the rising interest in the subject, there has never been a standard definition of genocide. The aim of social scientists in engaging in the definition of genocide is to relate the moral barbarity of such crimes and better place them within the larger communal context in which it is felt they belong. Shaw’s in-depth analysis of the social science aspect of genocide implies that their definition aims to be more comprehensive and preemptive in their formulations.

The author presents the key aspects of the 1948 Convention definition of the term genocide. Genocide is an act committed with intent to ruin a national, ethnical, religious or racial group. Despite the definition trying to encompass every aspect, there have been a major criticism of the definition as most groups find it vague and with varied shortcomings. The definition relates to several unrelated situations. Shaw cites one example relating to the definition as the one-child policy in China which is considered genocidal as it limits the population growth of particular segments of the nation’s ethnic affiliations. Scholars reject major aspects of the UN Convention 1948 definition (Shaw, 2007). Shaw explains that the definition excludes the “annihilation of groups defined by other characteristics such as class or political affiliation”.

Chapter One – The Origins of Genocide

The chapter focuses on the origins of genocide, with key emphasis on the global-historical ideology. The author uses the chapter to offer a sense of genocide’s frequency over the years. The chapter examines the derivation and progression of the theory, unravels some central speculative deliberations, and explores debated cases which explore the confines of the genocide background. In order to understand the meaning and definition of genocide, it is important that the readers have knowledge of genocide in prehistory, early modernity and antiquity (Shaw, (2007).

The term “genocide” is quite new but the ideology is ancient. The chapter quotes the bible to indicate the different aspects of the origin of genocide. The main aim of genocide in the past years was to eradicate enemy ethnicities and to incorporate and exploit other members. In ancient times, the genocides spare young women and girls for the sake of procreation and a source of dominant offspring. This was a typical trait in the ancient times as the gender-selective mass killing and root and branch genocide took over the past genocides. According to the chapter, the first recorded genocide was the Roman siege. In the siege, over 150,000 people were killed in Rome. Understanding the aspects of genocide, the chapter explores two different cases classified as genocide, one in Europe and the other in Africa. The two case studies indicate the times and geographical aspects of genocide and its effects. The chapter delves into details of the Vendee uprising in which over 150,000 people died while the Zulu genocide was responsible for displacement and murder of thousands of people (Shaw, 2007).

Prior to 1948, genocide was a crime without a name and until the Second World War, the naming process was yet to kick off. Raphael Lemkin was the founder of genocide studies and played a key role in the naming of the term/crime “genocide”. After the Lemkin era, the UN Convention in 1948 takes over in an effort to name genocide. Contemporary times focus on the genocidal intent, which may influence future definitions of the crime. The chapter also explains major contested cases of genocide. One notable contested case is the viewpoint in which terrorism should take. The key question is whether terrorism should be categorized as genocide regarding the intent, circumstance, and consequences of the act. The author finalizes with the debate of justifying genocide. All these aspects majorly rely on the intent of the act.

Chapter Eight; Genocidaires

In this chapter, Shaw outstandingly tries to reconcile the sociological factor that is often involved in the mind of those with the intention to commit the crime. These people rarely own up to the fact that they are killing people (Shaw, 2007). In essence, they refer to their victims in inhuman terms such as insects. The ideology behind this denial is to motivate their actions of mass murder. In the chapter, the author also highlights the acknowledgement of the killers through their crude ways of killing civilians.

Totten, S. (2012). Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. Routledge.

The fourth edition of Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts, has major focus on the different examples of genocides committed in the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. The book contains various chapters, each written by acknowledged expert in the given field. The chapters collectively depict a wide range of disciplinary viewpoints. The key backbone of the book is in the introduction part which offers readers with definitional issues, promises, convolutions and obstructions to the prevention and intervention of genocide. The book consists of various genocide accounts from people and institutions who witnessed the crime first hand. These accounts are from various parts of the world, and the diversity of the accounts allows readers to fully comprehend the genocide issue in the world. The witnesses’ genocide accounts also help readers to understand more about the similarities and differences of the different genocidal crimes (Totten, 2012). To achieve this understanding, the author structures the accounts through leading questions. These questions help the witnesses to address similar issues of their different genocide which in turn provide the readers with deep understanding of every genocide witnessed in the world.

Reading through every chapter of Centuries of Genocide: essays and Eyewitness Accounts, it is noticeable of the standard questions posed to every witness of different genocides. The particular leading questions include; who committed the genocide, how the act was committed, reasons behind the occurrence of the genocide, the main victims of the crime, and the outstanding historical forces in relation to the genocide (Totten, 2012). In addition, the author questions the witnesses on the long-range consequences of the genocide, the responses received during and after the genocide, future interpretation by scholars, and the contribution of the genocide to the relevant field of study. The book aims to provoke readers to the understanding that learning about genocide is significant and that every individual has an obligation not to become immune to acts of genocide, particularly in the contemporary world. The eyewitness accounts give major back up to the information provided in the book. The edition includes few revisions of the chapters including new chapter authors on Herero genocide and Rwanda genocide.

Centuries of Genocide offers readers a platform to learn in measured but no less wrenching tones of the deliberate annihilation of the different aspects of genocide committed in Indonesia, Rwanda, Armenia, Burundi, Kosovo, Darfur, Cambodia, Bangladesh, Iraqi-Kurdistan, and many other areas highlighted in the eighteen essays (Totten, 2012). The author dedicates three chapters to explore the perspectives of the European Holocaust which witnessed the death of over 44 million people. It is evident that the essays differ in detail, tone, and range. However, despite the difference in time, geographical location, and other factors, the author brings about major similarities through the standard questions. The essays are similar as they provide readers with background information, the ethos, response or lack thereof from the persons and institutions responsible.

The introductory statement in the book “ Will the killing ever stop?” is a profound question which allows the readers to ponder over the impacts of genocide. The introduction by the author integrates the ideas and concepts developed in the foreword and continues to set out the parameters for the discussion in the rest of the book. The first parts of every chapter in the book provide the context for the genocide followed by the second part which includes a compilation of eyewitness explanations relating to the particular genocide under discussion. The fourth edition of the book also offers maps to locate the various regions where the atrocities were committed. Reading the seventeen essays and the introduction part, it is evident that the book aims to portray the key issues witnessed in different genocides (Totten, 2012). The book revolves around the struggle to bring about significant and profound worldwide change in fighting to the scourge of genocide in contemporary times. The inclusion of eyewitness accounts from different parts of the world is an indication that the atrocity can occur anywhere and to anyone at any time. Few governmental forces have been able to limit the occurrence of genocide with a perfect example being of the Darfur situation. The genocide cited in Darfur is still ongoing even in the 21st century, hence, genocidal acts are not ancient.

Chapter Ten – The Burundi Genocide

The chapter focuses on the first recorded case of genocide in the Great Lakes Region of Africa which led to the death of over 300,000 Hutu. The genocide occurred in 1972, which attracted minimal media attention. Notable, there were no efforts by the reigning governments to carry out investigations on the reasons behind the occurrence of the atrocity (Totten, 2012). Over the years, there have been cases of blame game between the two communities, Hutus and Tutsis. The following areas of the chapter needs emphasis.

– The historical and regional context of the Burundi genocide

– The road to mass murder

– The silence of the international community

– The aftermath

– Eyewitness Accounts: The Burundi Genocide

It is seeming that the Burundi 1972 killings intended to crush the insurrection. The reigning government orchestrated the atrocity with the intention to insure the long-term stability of the state. The only reasonable way to maintain this control was through the elimination of the all educated Hutu elites and potential elites. Another motivating factor is the need for the government to transform the instruments of force including the police, army to a monopolistic aspect of rule. The 1972 Burundi genocide drastically altered the nation’s ethnic frame. Subsequent years have witnessed the stern lines of the Hutu-Tutsi fault line to extreme aspects. It is apparent that the 1972 genocide majorly contributed towards the 1994 Rwanda genocide as the two communities strive to claim prominence in the regions (Totten, 2012).

Chapter Seventeen: The intervention and prevention of Genocide-Where there is the political will, there is a way.

The last chapter of the book seeks to make sense of the genocide and its consequences. Despite the regular mass killing of innocent people in the whole world, there have been minimal initiatives to prevent further occurrence. The author provides different ways to intervene and prevent the occurrence of genocide. According to the research carried out by the experts on genocide, Totten recommends the establishment of proper and efficient systems which will help prevent the occurrence of genocide (Totten, 2012). One notable approach presented in the chapter is detecting an actual case of genocide early enough to put stringent measures. From the discussed cases of genocides in the book, some of them would have been avoided had the relevant authorities been keen on the early signs.

Campbell, J. J. (2012). On the Nature of Genocidal Intent. Lexington Books.

Over the years, the subject of genocide has received key attention from different scholars. One major aspect is the intention behind most genocides in the world. In this regard, Jason Campbell takes up the subject in his book, On the Nature of Genocidal Intent. The author provides a hypothetical insight into the nature of genocidal intent, analytically examining the theoretical and coherent structures for genocidal intent, and discussing its conjectural foundations. The in-depth exploration provides specific insight into the process of operationalizing genocide and mass extermination (Campbell, 2012). The examination comprises of analysis of the obligations orchestrators play and the systematic development of a genocidal strategy. This requires the intent to purge pre-selected demographic identifiers from the population.

The author also discusses in detail the vigorous process of generational struggle, wherein former offenders become victims and victims become perpetrators (Campbell, 2012). The 1948 UN Convention worked on the definition of genocide. It is apparent that the connotation of genocide and its consequence both legally and socially, relies keenly on the ideology of intent. However, further discussion of the subject has been rigid, not allowing contribution from social scientists. The major reason for the making of the book is to allow other members of the community to make contributions towards the genocide subject. The major way for this contribution is through the understanding of genocidal intent. In the introduction part of the book, Campbell tries to uncover the relationship between “the intent to kill and the intended result” which is an act of genocide (Campbell, 2012). The UN Convention explores the intent within the boundaries of genocide. The deeper people understand about genocidal intent, the more the comprehension of the nature and preconditions required to satisfy an act of genocide. The author highlights the need of understanding the relationship between the act and the intent behind the act. According to the UN Convention, the definition and its details lacks a chance for finding the relationship between the intent and the act of genocide. In the introduction part of the book, Campbell offers eight definitional perceptions of genocidal intent. Prior to understanding of the genocidal intent, the author explores the criteria for the selection of direct or indirect genocidal force. In terms of direct genocidal force, the use of government authorized and sanctioned military forces to commit an act of genocide. In the case of indirect genocidal force is where the perpetrators of genocide use paramilitary or militia groups to commit the act of genocide (Campbell, 2012).

Chapter Three – Genocidal Intent and its Relationship to Consequences

In this chapter, Campbell brings out the existing relationship between the genocidal intent and the consequences of the act of genocide. The impact of genocide are detrimental with the major one being murder of innocent lives. For such atrocities to pass as genocide, the act involves the loss of lives. In most cases, the number of deaths run into thousands. Various genocide acts indicate different intent, depending on the forces behind the atrocity. For instance, the Burundi 1972 genocide occurred from the direct force where the government intended to remain in power. The consequences witnessed after any genocide may clearly portray the genocidal intent. The people succumbing to the act, the destruction of property, and people affected in terms of future arrests will indicate the genocidal intent. The recommendation of the author in the chapter is for the relevant organizations and authorities to identify genocidal intent before any major consequences and damages (Campbell, 2012).

Chapter Eight: Inconsistencies within the logic of genocidal intent

The last chapter of the book tries to explore the existing inconsistencies within the logic of genocidal intent. Despite the constant calls in the modern times to understand the nature of genocidal intent, the criteria employed in the process leaves room for inconsistencies. The reported cases of genocide vary at lengths, from the geographical locations to the time of occurrence. In this regard, it is difficult to reach a standard way in which various relevant authorities can use to figure out the genocidal intent (Campbell, 2012). Notable, different genocides occur under varied circumstances hence the inconsistencies. On the other hand, the pre-genocide factors may lead to major inconsistencies.

References

Campbell, J. J. (2012). On the Nature of Genocidal Intent. Lexington Books.

Shaw, M. (2007). What is Genocide? Cambridge: Polity Press. ISBN: 0745631827.

Totten, S. (2012). Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. Routledge.