...Biochemistry Task 5- Lipids Student ID# Western Governors University 05/21/2015 Biochemistry Task 5- Lipids A. Fat is stored in the body and used as an energy source when not enough energy is available from food. This process involves dismantling the stored fat in fat cells and releasing the components into the bloodstream. The major storage form of fats in our body are triglycerides, which are made up of three fatty acids bound to glycerol. Adipocytes are primary cells that store fat in the triglyceride form. White adipose cells are used to store energy (O’Malley, M. 2014). 1. Triglycerides are the storage molecules that are broken down and used to produce ATP. The triglycerides break down into two different items, glycerol and fatty acids. The triglycerides are formed when glycerol binds to three fatty acid molecules. The fatty acids each break down into 2 carbon parts. Each part of the carbon makes Acetyl CoA. The Acetyl CoA molecule then enters the Citric Acid Cycle before it moves on to the next step, the electron transport chain. The end result of each of these steps is the production of 12 ATP (Hudon-Miller, 2012). B. 1. Saturated fats do not contain a carbon-carbon double bond. Unsaturated fats contain at least on carbon-carbon double bond. The saturated fatty acid chains can stack while the unsaturated fatty acid chains are kinked by the double bond. 2. Saturated fats have a high melting point and are solid at room temperature...
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...Biochemistry Task 4 GRT1 208.5.4-01, 03-05, 5.5-02, 04-07 Western Governors University Biochemistry Task 4 GRT1 208.5.4-01, 03-05, 5.5-02, 04-07 A. Case 1: Hereditary Fructose Intolerance A1. Role of Enzymes in Processes Enzymes are proteins that carry out chemical reactions. They bind to substrates, which are basically substances that need to be broken down and changed into something else. When the enzyme and substrate bind, they form the enzyme-substrate complex. An enzyme will act in a specific way on the substrate that it is bound to in order to change it into a product, and at the end of the process, the enzyme is unchanged and ready to bind to the next substrate. An enzyme acts as a catalyst, something that lowers the energy required to complete a chemical reaction (activation energy) without itself being changed. (Hudon-Miller, 2012) In the case of fructose breakdown, an enzyme called fructokinase is responsible for splitting fructose into fructose 1-phosphate, a six-carbon fructose. Another enzyme called aldolase B splits fructose 1-phosphate into two three-carbon molecules, dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde. These products are then able to enter the glycolysis pathway to be converted to pyruvate, which is essential for the citric acid cycle and the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) for cellular energy. A2. Deficiency in Aldolase B A hereditary deficiency in aldolase B could be caused by mutations in the ALDOB gene. An aldolase...
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...DNA Replication, Translation, Transcription, and Death Cap Mushrooms Biochemistry – GRT1 Task 1 02/14/2015 (Wolfe, DNA Replication, 2000) (Wolfe, DNA Translation, 2000) A death cap mushroom, also known as Amanita phalloides, is a poisonous mushroom that can be detrimental to our health. When a death cap mushroom is ingested a toxic substance known as alpha amanitin is released into the body’s system. This toxin prevents protein production and leads to cell death (Santi, Luca, Caterina Maggioli, Marianna Mastroroberto, Manuel Tufoni, Lucia Napoli, and Paolo Caraceni, 2012). RNA polymerase, the enzyme responsible for synthesizing mRNA, is the enzyme directly affected by alpha amanitin. Alpha amanitin blocks RNA polymerase from working properly within the cell (Hudon-Miller, 2013). Without RNA polymerase, mRNA is not transcribed from DNA. Without mRNA, ribosomes cannot complete translation to form polypeptides, also known as proteins (Hudson-Miller, 2013). Proteins provide the necessary means to keep cells functioning accordingly. The liver and kidneys are the organs targeted by this toxin as they are the filtering system of the body and this toxin will enter their cells (Hudson-Miller, 2013). With RNA polymerase inhibited, no ability to produce proteins, the ultimate effect of this toxin has been reached and cell death occurs. References Hudon-MIller, S. (2013). Death cap mushroom. Retrieved from http://wgu.hosted.panopto.com/Panopto/Pages/Viewer.aspx?id=45c5aef2-370e-43eb-ad9c-40f073926331 ...
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...BIOCHEMISTRY GRT1 Task 3 Breanna Jordan Alpha Beta Beta Alpha Oxygen Iron Atoms Heme Groups Oxygenated Hemoglobin * Formed via transportation of O2 to cells in tissue * O2 adheres to heme protein in Hgb * T (taut state) R (relaxed state) makes binding easier or releases De-oxygenated Hemoglobin * is not bound to oxygen molecule * Higher absorption * Blue-ish in color Bohr’s Effect CO2 produced through citric acid cycle, Hg carries oxygen from lungs to body's tissues. Hg releases oxygen for CO2 and affects pH levels. Normal pH range is 7.2 - 7.4 ↓ pH causes ↑ in the amount of oxygen being released in hemoglobin. An elevated pH will cause the oxygen to bind the hemoglobin proteins in RBCs. ("Hemoglobin," n.d.) RBCs are round cells that have concaved centers. They are flexible making it easy to move through blood vessels. Sickle cell RBC's are developed from mutations in DNA - mRNA transcriptions. They are crescent shape and become fibrous. This causes them to stick to one another. Once they begin to stick, the deoxygenated cells are unable to travel to the lungs to receive oxygen. As the CO2 builds up this causes lack of oxygen to the tissues causing pain. Sickle Cell cells also cause anemia due to the fact cells die faster than normal RBCs. Sickle cell disease is an inherited autosomal recessive pattern disorder. For a child to inherit the disease both parents must have the trait...
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...WGU GRT1 208.5.4- 01-07 Enzymes are proteins that are catalysts for biological processes. The enzymes can slow down or speed up a biological reaction. Enzymes have an active site, which have different shapes for different functions it is to perform. A reaction will begin when a substrate with the matching shape connects to the enzyme. It is critical that these pieces correctly fit together in order for the process to run smoothly and complete its job. Enzymes help break up large molecules faster than if there were no enzymes, thus releasing energy into the body faster. One very important enzyme in the human body is aldolase B, it is responsible for the metabolizing fructose. Fructose is a naturally occurring monosaccharide in the body. Fructose often bonds with sucrose and becomes what most people know as table sugar, which is a disaccharide. (United States National Library of Medicine, 2011). Before fructose is broken down to be used as energy, is it converted to fructose-1-phosphate. As mentioned earlier, aldolase B is needed to break down fructose in the human body. If there is a deficiency of aldolase B, a person will experience Hereditary Fructose Intolerance (HFI) HFI is an autosomal recessive trait that is related to a mutation of the ALDOB gene (USNLM, 2011). This gene is responsible for making the aldolase B enzyme. The mutated gene causes the aldolase B enzyme to be misshaped, unable to function properly. When a person ingests fructose, it is converted to fructose-1-phosphate...
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...Importance of Fat Cynthia Kim Biochemistry GRT1 208.5.6-01-05 What are Lipids? ! Chemical group name for organic substances of a fatty nature; includes fats and oils (Schlenker & Long, 2007) per gram than proteins and carbohydrates ! Fat provides more than twice as many kilocalories ! Organic compounds formed from a carbon chain backbone and hydrogen and oxygen atoms attached (Schlenker & Long, 2007) ! Fatty acids is the structural component of fats ! Triglyceride: chemical name for fat made up of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol base; the form of fatty acids when stored in the body (Schlenker & Long, 2007) ! Stored in adipose tissue (Schlenker & Long, 2007) ATP Production 1. Beta-oxidation of fatty acids ! Breakdown of triglycerides into 2-carbon units to become acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) (Grodner, Roth & Walkingshaw, 2012) 2. Acetyl CoA enters tricarboxylic acid cycle (Krebs cycle) 3. The carbon and hydrogen atoms from the fatty acids oxidize to carbon dioxide and water and release energy as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) (Grodner, Roth & Walkingshaw, 2012) Characteristics of Fatty Acids ! Degree of saturation gives lipids their physical characteristics (Schlenker & Long, 2007) ! Saturated Fatty Acids ! Hydrogen atom attached to each carbon atom ! Solid at room temperature ! Examples: Butter, peanut butter, meats, vegetable oils ! Unsaturated Fatty Acids ! Carbon chains with double bonds ! Fewer hydrogen...
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...DNA Replication Jennifer Wilson Biochemistry GRT1 Margie Hayes January 18,2015 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) DNA is made of chemical building blocks called nucleotides. These building blocks (nucleotides) are made of phosphate, sugar and one of four types of nitrogen bases. The four types of nitrogen bases found in nucleotides are: adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine. These nucleotides are either purine or pyrimidine based, called nucleotide subunits. The purine base are adenine and guanine. The pyrimidine based are thymine and cytosine. The DNA strand is formed when the nucleotides are linked into chains, with the phosphate and sugar group alternating. As you can see in the diagram above, adenine bonds with thymine and guanine bonds with cytosine. These bonds take place by hydrogen bonding. DNA Replication Fork Topoisomerases are enzymes that regulate the overwinding or underwinding of DNA, shown as the yellow wire above. Topoisomerases catalyze and guide the unknotting and unkinking of DNA. The double-helical configuration that DNA strands naturally reside makes them difficult to separate, so they must be separated by helicase enzymes. Helicase separates the strands of a DNA double helix by using the energy from ATP hydrolysis so replication can begin. The replication bubble allows replication to take place in 2 directions. Primase is an enzyme that synthesizes short RNA sequences called primers. These primers are the starting point for DNA synthesis at...
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...The Role of DNA and RNA Transmission of information within the Cell GRT1 Introduction DNA and RNA play a significant role in cell growth through the necessitation of the cell replication processes. DNA is tasked with the responsibility of holding the code that constitutes an organism. Similarly, RNA is responsible for the execution of the gene code written in the DNA code. Additionally, it is responsible for the ultimate proliferation of the original DNA code. In a broad view, DNA is made up of a sequence of nucleotides that shape up to form a double helix. Through transcription, the sequence of the DNA is transferred into mRNA by the aid of enzymes. The message encoded in the mRNA is then translated into a sequence of amino acids then into proteins by ribosomes. Generally, DNA is responsible for storing gene information while RNA is tasked with the responsibility of turning the information into a functional form (Omoto & Lurquin, 2004). A. DNA replication at biochemical level DNA replication is imperative for the growth of organisms through cell division. The process involves the division of two strands in the genome where a replica of genetic information is carried. The two strands of the DNA are first separated into two strands from which complimentary strands are generated. Each strand of the of the original DNA molecule befalls a template for new molecules (Hall, 2011). Two major enzymes are responsible for this process; DNA polymerase III and RNA...
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