...improve the well-being of people. (History, 2014) This paper shall present to the reader Team B’s prospective of the week five video assignment. Our breakdown shall include a brief explanation on the cost of capital, capital asset pricing model, capital base, and capital structure. Cost of Capital The cost of capital is the least adequate rate of return on resource development that must be earned to be accepted by management. Owners use cost of capital to finance their business. Cost of capital refers to the cost of debt or cost of equity. Various corporations use a mixture of equity and debt to investment their productions. In general cost of capital to the industry may result from a subjective standard of all capital resource. In finance, this process is referred as the weighted average cost of capital (WACC). The cost of capital can change depending on the company; it also may rely on different aspects such as profitability, borrowing, and operating history. Capital Asset Pricing Model The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) is defined as, the association amongst risk and probable risk that is used in value of precarious securities" (Capital Asset Pricing Model, 2013). In finance, CAPM is used to establish a supposedly suitable obligatory charge on return of an asset. If that advantage is to be added to a previously expanded assortment, providing resources non-diversifiable peril. There is a standardized holding period assumed by the CAPM in order for the returns on...
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...Financial Theories Overview Edward E. Edgar University of Phoenix Financial Theories Overview The following is an overview of 10 different financial theories prevalent today. The overview will include a brief description of the theory, an example of the theory, and other attributes of the theory. There will also be a conclusion to sum up a general understanding of the theories and their applications. Efficiency theory Efficiency theory has been around since the 60s and, is an extension of the efficiency theory of a capitalist society. Generally the theory is that scant resources are distributed by the owner in an efficient manner. The owner choses the best outcome for his or her investment and regulates resources and products accordingly. This is extended to the stock market in the 60s and has been a prevalent theory since. The theory as applied to the stock market says that all information of the market is fully reflected in the price of the stock and efficiently assimilated (Fama, 1970). Examples Generally stock returns are compared to overall market returns. A mutual fund company will compare their returns to the general stock market return and state they are a certain percentage above or below the market standard returns. Most will try to say they have beaten the market average. This is true for most investing firms and, is used as a selling point for the company or mutual fund. Attributes If this theory was to be taken to the extreme one would have to say that...
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...Return, and the Capital Asset Pricing Model MULTIPLE CHOICE 1. Suppose Sarah can borrow and lend at the risk free-rate of 3%. Which of the following four risky portfolios should she hold in combination with a position in the risk-free asset? a. portfolio with a standard deviation of 15% and an expected return of 12% b. portfolio with a standard deviation of 19% and an expected return of 15% c. portfolio with a standard deviation of 25% and an expected return of 18% d. portfolio with a standard deviation of 12% and an expected return of 9% ANS: B To determine which portfolio is the best, draw a line from the risk-free rate to each dot in the figure and choose the line with the highest slope. DIF: H REF: 7.3 The Security Market Line and the CAPM 2. Suppose David can borrow and lend at the risk-free rate of 5%. Which of the following three risky portfolios should he hold in combination with a position in the risk-free asset? a. portfolio with a standard deviation of 16% and an expected return of 12% b. portfolio with a standard deviation of 20% and an expected return of 16% c. portfolio with a standard deviation of 30% and an expected return of 20% d. he should be indifferent in holding any of the three portfolios ANS: B To determine which portfolio is the best, draw a line from the risk-free rate to each dot in the figure and choose the line with the highest slope. DIF: H REF: 7.3 The Security Market Line and the CAPM 3. The risk-free rate is 5% and...
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...The History of Finance An eyewitness account. Merton H. Miller MERTON H. MILLER is Robert R. McCormick distinguished ser- vice professor emeritus at the University of Chicago (IL 60637). SUMMER 1999 * * * IT IS ILLEGAL TO REPRODUCE THIS ARTICLE IN ANY FORMAT * * *| t five years, the German Finance Association A is not very old as professional societies go, but then neither is the field of finance itself. Finance in its modern form really dates only from the 1950s. In the forty years since then, the field has come to surpass many, perhaps even most, of the more traditional fields of economics in terms of the numbers of students enrolled in finance courses, the numbers of faculty teaching finance courses, and above all in the quantity and quality of their combined schol-arly output. The huge body of scholarly research in finance over the last forty years falls naturally into two main streams. And no, I don’t mean “asset pricing” and “cor-porate finance,” but instead a deeper division that cuts across both. The division I have in mind is the more fundamental one between what I will call the business school approach to finance and the economics department approach. Let me say immediately, however, that my distinction is purely “notional,” not physical — a dis-tinction over...
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... 3 4. Capital Asset Pricing Model 4 5.1 Limitations of CAPM 4 5.2 The APT Model 4 5.3 The Three-Factor Model 4 5.4 Required Rate of Return using APT or Three-Factor 5 Model 5. Bonds 5 6.5 How bond prices are determined 5 6.6 The Rate of Return on the bonds 6 6. Conclusion 7. Appendices 6.1 Appendix 1 – after tax rate of return on bonds 7 6.2 Appendix 2 – Excel Working and screen shot 8. References 9. Bibliography 1. Introduction Naturally Fresh Plc are considering converting a number of their farms in Southern Europe into campsites following difficult trading conditions. This report will look at the required rate of returns on the equity as well as the bonds, whilst explaining the models used to calculate the returns and also provide a recommendation on whether the investment opportunity should be accepted by Naturally Fresh Plc. 2. Required Rate of Return on Equity Key | | E(R) | Expected/Required Rate of Return | R(f) | Risk Free Rate | B | Beta | R(m) | Market Return | R(m)-R(f) | Market Premium | Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM): E(R) = Rf + B(Rm-Rf) E(R) = 2% + 0.8(12%-2%) E(R) = 10% The required rate of return, which is the minimum yield that investors require in order to select a particular investment, was calculated using the CAPM. The CAPM is a model that describes the relationship between risk...
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...predictability within equity markets and thus disprove the Efficient Market Hypothesis. However, consider the following: a. Multiple studies suggest that “value” stocks (measured often by low P/E multiples) earn higher returns over time than “growth” stocks (high P/E multiples). This could suggest a strategy for earning higher returns over time. However, another rational argument may be that traditional forms of CAPM (such as Sharpe’s model) do not fully account for all risk factors which affect a firm’s price level. A firm viewed as riskier may have a lower price and thus P/E multiple. b. The book-to-market effect suggests that an investor can earn excess returns by investing in companies with high book value (the value of a firm’s assets minus its liabilities divided by the number of shares outstanding) to market value. A study by Fama and French 1 suggests that book-to-market value reflects a risk factor that is not accounted for by traditional one variable CAPM. For example, companies experiencing financial distress see the ratio of book to market value increase. Thus a more complex CAPM which includes book-to-market value as an explanatory variable should be used to test market anomalies. c. Stock price momentum can be positively correlated with past performance (short to intermediate horizon) or negatively correlated (long horizon). Historical data seem to imply statistical significance to these patterns. Explanations for this include a bandwagon effect or the behavioralists’ (see Chapter...
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...stocks over the entire history of the stock market from 1926 through the late 1970s. The second academic strategy DFA used was the Book to-Market effect based on the finds of Fama/French1992 paper titled “The Cross-Section of the Expected Stock Returns”. In 1993 Fama/French expanded the research in the a titled “Common Factors in the Expected Returns of Stocks and Bonds” that is known as the “Fama-French Three-Factor Model” Studying the company’s size or the book-to-market ratio may shed light on exposure to sources of systemic risk not captured by the CAPM beta, Fama and French developed the Three Factor Model believing that small stocks may be more sensitive to changes in business conditions and that these variables may capture sensitivity to macroeconomic risk factors. Also, using international data collected by Morgan Stanley Capital International, Fama and French found that high book-to-market stocks outperformed low in almost every country studied. Fama and French also found that in certain years value portfolios were outperformed by growth portfolios across a wide array of countries. Investor cannot expect to lower their risk by diversifying their investments in different countries, which also confirms the belief that value stock is risky. Based on the high level of correlation between value-growth portfolios, DFA introduced international value funds. 2. What do these findings imply for CAPM and EMH? The finds of Fama and French imply that CAPM measure of risk, “beta”...
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...Summary - Valuing Wal-Mart In utilizing the fundamental data provided by the 2010 Richard Ivey School of Business Foundation article titled Valuing Wal-Mart - 2010, I have made the following conclusions regarding the value of Wal-Mart (WMT) stock as of February 2012. * Utilizing the constant growth dividend discount model (DDM), the value of Wal-Mart’s stock price is $60.20. The most recent closing price of Wal-Mart stock was $53.48. Given this information, the constant growth DDM valuation suggests that the Wal-Mart stock is currently undervalued. * Utilizing the two-stage DDM approach, the value of Wal-Mart’s stock price is $83.95. Similar to the constant growth DDM valuation conclusion, the Wal-Mart stock is currently undervalued. * The capital asset pricing model (CAPM) was used to determine the appropriate required rate of return on Walm-Mart’s stock. The required rate of return for Wal-Mart is 7.01% * In following the concepts of the price/earnings (P/E) multiple approach, Wal-Mart’s intrinsic value based upon the P/E multiple approach is $55.03. Given the current stock price of Wal-mart of $53.48, this valuation would support that Wal-Mart’s stock is undervalued. *Several assumptions were made within the various valuation methods. The assumptions are noted and defined within each of the following sections. In summary, in employing the dividend discount valuation methods and price/earnings multiple approach, the Wal-Mart stock would be a “buy”...
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...level of risk. Optimal portfolio: The optimal portfolio is the point of tangency between the efficient set and the invester’s risk-return indifference curve Market portfolio: a portfolio made up of all the assets in the economy with weights equal to their relative market values. It is an important concept in the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM). Such a portfolio will have a beta value of one Beta is a measure of a security’s sensitivity to market movements CAMP * It attempts to explain the relationship between the risk and return on a financial security and this relationship is used to determine the price for the security. * The ideas of CAPM: * If a share helps to stabilize a portfolio, that is make it more in line with the market, then that share will earn a similar rate of return to the market portfolio. * If a share makes a portfolio more risky as compared to the market portfolio, its expected rate of return will be above the market rate of return. * If a share reduces the risk of a portfolio compared to the market portfolio, it will earn a lower rate of return than the market rate of return. The CAPM model concentrates only on the pricing of systematic risk 1. CAMP assumptions * We have assumed that investors only care about means and variances. This rules out skewed distributions of asset returns (in fact it is more restrictive than this – it amounts to an assumption that asset...
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...Investment Analysis Paper on Apple Inc. Elijah Clark Walden University Investment Analysis Paper on Apple Inc. Apple Inc. (Apple) is a registered publicly traded company established in 1977 and is currently headquartered in Cupertino, California (Apple Inc., 2015a). The company’s products and services include mobile communication and media devices, portable digital music players, personal computers, software, accessories, services, networking solutions, and third-party digital content and applications. The company sells its products and digital services worldwide through online media, direct sales force, retail stores, through third-party wholesalers, and cellular network carriers. The company sells directly to consumers, small and mid-sized businesses, educational institutions, enterprises, and government agencies. The company’s operations are based in the Americas, Europe, Greater China, Japan, and retail. In 2014, the company’s direct and indirect distribution sales channels accounted for 28% and 72% of total net sales (Apple Inc., 2015a). The unit sales, which consisted of the iPhone, iPad, Mac, and iPod products, was 270,446 million units total within the company’s fiscal year (Apple Inc., 2015a). Board of Directors The 2015 proxy statement of Apple stated that the company annually selects its board of directors, which currently has 10 board members (Apple Inc., 2015a). Shareholders elect board of directors and the Board periodically reviews...
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...Capital Asset Pricing Model: The Indian Context R Vaidyanathan T he Capital Asset Pricing model is based on two parameter portfolio analysis model developed by Markowitz (1952). This model was simultaneously and independently developed by John Lintner (1965), Jan Mossin (1966) and William Sharpe (1964). In equation form the model can be expressed as follows: E (Ri) = Rf + (i [E(rm) – Rf] = Rf +(im / (m (E(Rm) – Rf / (m) Where E(Ri) is expected return on asset i, Rf is the risk-free rate of return, E(Rm) is expected return on market proxy and (i; is a measure of risk specific to asset i. This relationship between expected return on asset i and expected return on market portfolio is also called the security market line. If CAPM is valid, all securities will lie in a straight line called the security market line in the E(R), (i frontier. The security market line implies that return is a linearly increasing function of risk. Moreover, only the market risk affects the return and the investor receive no extra return for bearing diversifiable (residual) risk. The set of assumptions employed in the development of the CAPM can be summarized as follows [Sears and Trennepohl (1993)]: 1. Investors are risk-averse and they have a preference for expected return and a dislike for risk. 2. Investors make investment decisions based on expected return and the variances of security returns, i.e. two-parameter utility function...
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...The Development of Modern Finance "A Short History of Value" David Roubaud & Jean-Charles Bagneris 10/2011 The Main Steps of the Theory Building • Portfolio Selection (Markowitz, 1952) • CAPM (Sharpe, 1963) • Financing and Dividend Decisions Neutrality (Modigliani et Miller, 1958, 1961,1963) • Efficient Markets (Fama, 1965, 1970) • Options Pricing Theory (Black & Scholes, 1973, Myers, 1977) • Agency Theory (Jensen, Meckling, 1976) • Efficient Markets II (Fama, 1991) • Behavioural Finance (Kahneman & Tversky, 1979, Shiller, 1981, 2000) Portfolio Selection • Investors are rationals and risk averse • Diversification lowers specific risk • Any portfolio is a combination of the market portfolio and the riskless asset The CAPM Capital Asset Pricing Model • Systematic risk of an asset is measured by its beta coefficient • The model calibrates the risk-return relationship • Simple, elegant and linear model => big success • Low explaining power (strong assumptions) • Alternative models are difficult to use 1 The Development of Modern Finance 2 Financial Markets Efficiency "At any given point in time, assets prices on financial markets account for all available information." • Strong assumptions on: – markets organization – investors behaviour • One consequence of EMH is Random Walk Hypothesis • Assumptions are not always true: 3 forms of efficiency (strong, semi-strong, weak) The irrelevance of financing and dividends decisions In a world without taxes and with perfect financial markets...
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...(starting at page 28) Cost of Equity * Can be measured with: * CAPM: risk measured relative to a single market factor * Arbitrage pricing model: cost of equity is determined by the sensitivity to multiple unspecified economic factors * Multiple factor model: sensitivity to macroeconomic variables is used to measure risk i. Estimate Risk-Free Rate ii. Estimate Risk Premium iii. Estimate Beta * Unlevered beta: the beta a company would have if it were all equity financed * CAPM: beta estimated relative to market portfolio * APM / Multi-factor: betas relative to each factor have to be measured. There are 3 estimation approaches: * Historical market betas (most used): regressing stock returns against market returns. Analysts often obtain these from estimation services. * Fundamental betas (bottom-up): betas determined by (i) type of businesses the firm in is, (ii) degree of operating leverage (fixed costs relative to total costs), (iii) firm’s financial leverage. * Accounting betas: look at changes in the firms’ earnings vs. changes in earnings for the market. * For private firms, may have to estimate betas using comparable publicly traded firms. * Estimating the cost of equity * Cost of equity is the return shareholders expect to make. If firms don’t deliver this, the SHs become restive and rebellious. * CAPM: Expected return = riskfree rate + beta * expected risk premium * Cost...
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...to resonate sufficiently with the academic community. This is reason enough to perform a systematic analysis and critical discussion of his country risk premium concept. Damodaran’s initial considerations concerning a country risk premium can be found in Damodaran (1999a) and Damodaran (2003), with further essentially unchanged mentions in his more recent publications. In our contribution we will concentrate on the two aforementioned sources. 2 CRP concept In the following, we intend to give a neutral, that is, non-judgmental description of Damodaran’s country risk premium concept (CRPC). We will also attempt to provide a detailed reconstruction of Damodaran’s thought process which led to this approach. Risk-return models The cost of capital for risk-return models...
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...Chapter 6. Risk, Return, and CAPM Dollar return: Amount to be received-Amount invested Rate of return: Amount received-Amount investedAmount invested Stand-alone risk is the risk an investor has in just holding the one asset Expected rate of return: r=i=1npiri Where P is probability of i outcome and r is the rate of return The more leptokurtic the distribution, the more likely the actual outcome will be closer to the expected return. Measuring Standalone Risk: Standard Deviation 1. Expected Rate of return 2. Deviationi= ri-r 3. Variance=σ2=i=1n( ri-r)2Pi 4. Standard Deviation=σ=Variance 5. Or use Excel of Financial calculator Using Historical Data to Measure Risk: Realized Rates of Return: rAvg=t=1nrtn Standard Deviation of the Sample Returns: σ=S=t=1n(rt-rAvg)n-1 In Excel use =Average and =STDEV functions Measuring Standalone Risk: Coefficient of Variation Coefficient of variation = CV=σr Risk Aversion and Required Rate of Return Assume risk aversion for investors Textbook Example: Basic Food’s Price up to $150 from $100 Sale.com Price down to $75 from 100. Difference in return, 20%-10%= Risk Premium Risk in Portfolio Context Expected return on portfolio=Weighted expected return=rp=i=1nwiri Portfolio Risk Stocks can be combined into portfolios which then become less risky to riskless depending on the correlation of the assets. Stocks with a ρ=-1 are perfectly negatively correlated. The inverse is positively correlated. Expected...
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