Impact of Female Labor Force Participation in Economic Growth in USA and Turkey between 1990 and 2010

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Table of Contents Introduction 3 Background of the Topic 4 Research Problem 4 Research Questions 5 Research Aims and Objectives 5 Literature Review 6 The Trend in the Female Labor Force Participation in United States and Turkey between 1990 and 2010 6 The Economic Situations in America and Ukraine 7 The Relationship between Female Labor Force Participation and Economic Growth 9 Research Methodology 10 Research Design 11 Research Philosophy 11 Research Approach 11 Selecting Respondents 12 Research Ethics 12 Data Collection Instruments 13 Data Analysis 13 References 14

Introduction Labor force growth is essential because it drives the economic prosperity of a given country. The universal understanding of the labor force encompasses working people as well as those looking for employment opportunities. Most scholars portray it as a dynamic concept that is a product of the political, social and economic factors within a given country. The most predominant notion today is that changes in the labor force participation, as well as population changes, has culminated in a labor force that is more diversified. In specific, relatively more women are represented in the labor force compared to the previous centuries. The diversity in the workforce shaped the economies of developed countries such as America, and is still expected to continue its influence several years to come. It can be argued deductively that if the economy of America has grown over the same period it has experienced diversity in the labor force, then women affected the growth of the economy positively. However, different sources maintained that the contribution of women in the American labor force has been on the same level since 1990, causing other developed countries to boast of superior representation of women. On the other hand, Turkey has been experiencing a declining female labor force, with the current situation standing at approximately 27% of the total labor force. This fact is a considerable decline considering that the representation of females in the labor force was 48% in 1980. Similar reports also indicated that Turkey has reported the lowest female participation compared to the 34 countries under the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development. The other countries reported average participation between 61% and 64% in 2010. The seriousness of the situation is further highlighted by the fact that Libya, Pakistan, and Iran, which previously had low rates, boast of higher rates compared to Turkey currently.
Background of the Topic Most scholars maintain that there is a direct relationship between population growth, labor participation and economic growth of a given country. The argument is that the growth of the economy depicts greater labor force participation. More people seek for jobs as soon as they complete their basic education. The population ratios in countries such as America have been on the increase since 1990, a trend that culminates in many people contributing to the labor force. Similar arguments have also maintained that the higher the number of people participating in the workforce, the stable it becomes. Most people will be encouraged to participate actively if the benefits of a stable economy are reflected in higher wages. However, this notion is not entirely true because a country can have high populations with only a few people participating in the labor force. The direct relationship between the labor force and economic progress may be definite.
Research Problem Most studies have focused on proving that economic progress is correlated to labor participation. Other studies have even gone to the extent of analyzing how this notion may be possible. Consequently, we have many studies discussing economic growth trends in relation to how the population contribute. Most of the studies also provide a blanket assertion that greater labor force participation facilitates economic growth. However, a gap still exists on how women are represented in the labor force of United States and Turkey. A gap also exists in the understanding of whether women participation in the labor force can contribute to economic growth. United States and Turkey serve as appropriate case studies because of the related trends in the labor force engagements. For instance, the female participation in the labor force has been on a similar level since 1990 in United States. On the other hand, Turkey has been experiencing a decline in the female participation since 1980.
Research Questions The primary research question revolves around determining impact of female labor force participation on economic growth in United States and Turkey between 1990 and 2010. In addition, the study will also seek to address the following sub-questions: * What has been the trend in female labor force participation in United States and Turkey between 1990 and 2010? * What has been the economic situation in those countries during the same period? * What is the overall impact of higher labor force participation in the economy of America and Turkey? * How can females be encouraged to participate in the labor force of United States and Turkey if in case they influence the related economies positively?
Research Aims and Objectives The primary purpose of this study is to determine the impact of female labor force participation on economic growth in United States and Turkey between 1990 and 2010. In addition, the aims and objectives of the study include the following points: * To determine the attitude of females towards participating in the labor force of United States and Turkey. * To determine the extent to which women contribute to the labor force of United States and Turkey. * To determine the exact areas of the labor force occupied by women in United States and Turkey between 1990and 2010. * To determine the relationship between labor force participation and economic progress.
Literature Review
The following section reviews literature sources and previous studies conducted in the area of study. It discusses published sources as well as studies, making an in-depth analysis of the findings reported by various findings and comparing the studies to each other.
The Trend in the Female Labor Force Participation in United States and Turkey between 1990 and 2010 Kromer and David maintain that most people prefer to retire between 60 and 65 years of employment in order to pursue other interests in United States. However, the rate of employment for people aged within the desired retiring age range rose from approximately 12% to 16% within 1990 and 2010. The rate of employment for people aged below 64 years experienced a slight decline within the same duration, specifically from approximately 75.6% to 74%. The largest change was registered between age groups of 65and 69 years, specifically commanding an increased rate of approximately 21% among the 65 and older population. Men experienced the least increase in the labor force representation among the population of 65 years and older. Men also experienced the greatest decline in representation for the population who were below 65 years. On the other end, more women aged 65 years and above participated in the labor force, specifically increasing from 8.4% to 12.1% within the same 1990 and 2010. Correspondingly, females aged below 65 years experienced a 1.9% increase in the labor force participation over the same period compared to the preceding case. Other reports suggest that female workforce involvement in the United States increased from approximately 30% to 60% between 1950 and 2008. Similar reports maintain that the rapid increase in female participation in the workforce was facilitated by a decline in the male participation, implying a reduction in male domination. Female labor force participation has increased alarmingly specifically from 34.3% to 24.9% between 1988 and 2006. Similar reports also indicate that female participation continued to decline further after 2006. Different reports also tend to support this assertion by citing a 27% female participation in the current situation. This trend is regarded lower than countries such as Iran and Libya, which had lower female workforce participation in the past. It is also lower compared to the averages presented by other OECD countries, specifically between 61% and 64%.
The Economic Situations in America and Ukraine Current reports indicate that the economy of Turkey has been on the rise recently, sustained by agriculture, commerce, and modern industry. The textile industry has been overtaken by automotive, electronics and science, but the involvement in those areas is less compared to other OECD countries. Coincidentally, the workforce participation is less dynamic compared to other OECD countries that boast of higher female workforce participation. However, Turkish economy has experienced serious recessions in the past, beginning from the 1950expenditures. In specific, the country experienced a serious recession in 1994 due to over spending of public spending. The recession brought to an end a thirteen years’ worth of growth in the economy of Turkey. The economic situation of the country tried to improve three years later, only to stagnate in 1998 due to the financial crises that hit the continent. Few years later, disaster struck the heart of the Turkish business district, causing most businesses to stand still. This occurrence had an impact in the economy of Turkey owing to the fact that it relied on a small labor force. The Bureau of Labor Statistics foretold that the economy of United States would improve between 2000 and 2010, citing an improvement of GDP to 12.8 trillion dollars. The GDP was expected to grow faster, at the rate of 3.4% annually compared to 3.2% of the preceding periods. The reports also forecasted that there would be a decline in the civilian household employment, citing a reduction to 1.1% between 2000 and 2010 from 1.3% between 1990 and 2000. The decrease in the household employment would culminate in the increase of jobs to 16.2 million within 2000 and 2010. This trend would be lower than 16.4 million employments between 1990 and 2000. Coincidentally, the female labor force participation was on the same level between 1990 and 2010.
The Relationship between Female Labor Force Participation and Economic Growth The current growth in the Turkish economy despite a decline in the female labor force participation is a matter of interest. The same trend seems to be taking place, where the country has been experiencing consistent economic growth despite a decline in the female labor force participation. It is important to note that trends cannot be sustained over longer periods because they would lack dynamism brought by the involvement of women. For instance, females act as resources for the jobs that are not preferred by males. The decline in female labor force participation also reduces their opportunities to become independent economically. A study that focused on determining the relationship between females and economic growth established that a decline in their participation might lead to a marginally lower economic growth.The study used a computable general equilibrium model to replicate two different cases of the research problem. The first simulated case focused on investigating the effects of a reduced female participation. The second simulation focused on examining the barriers to female labor force participation. The relationship between female labor force participation and economic growth is often explained in terms of U-shaped theory. It asserts that female force participation and economic growth have a mutual conditioning that can be attributed to a country's structural transformation.The shift from agricultural supported economies to industrialization has encouraged labor-intensive trends, consequently supporting male dominance in the labor force. However, women get many job opportunities when the post-industrialization economy of a given country opens, probing women to become active. The importance of female participation in the labor force can be discussed in terms of equity as well as efficiency.The aspect of equity can be used to assess the position of females in the economy. Females are mostly seen as unexploited potentials of various countries. Exploiting their potentials provide alternative skills and talents in the industries, all which can contribute to the growth of the economy in ways unimaginable. The conclusions of the literature review suggest that there is a relationship between female labor force participation and economic growth. Whereas it is true that the economy would still grow even if females do not participate, the growth would not reach optimum levels expected if women contribute. The participation of women offers a diversity of skills and talent in the workforce of various organizations. It also expands the scope of a given economy by probing the development of unique industries, as well as business ideas. Therefore, female labor force participation can increase the number of people working in United States and Turkey, consequently reducing the ratio of dependence. The assessment also reveals that economic growth can facilitate women participation in the labor force. Their involvement can also be facilitated by providing adequate education to females, especially in technical areas that have traditionally been reserved for males.
Research Methodology The following section describes the research design and methods that would be used to collect data about the impact of background music on the time spent on the internet. The section describes the research strategy and approach. Additionally, the selection of respondents and their ethical consideration in the choice and participation is highlighted.
Research Design
Research Philosophy
The research design of any given study describes the primary approach for achieving the related objectives. Therefore, selecting the appropriate research design is a crucial factor in achieving the intended results. The quantitative approach comes about from the belief that human phenomena as well variables in their behavior can be studied objectively. For that reason, the quantitative approach has been pointed out as the most appropriate research method to be utilized in this study. Quantitative survey uses a fixed design that arranges in advance the research question as well as the detailed methods of data collection and analysis. However, it is also important to incorporate aspects of qualitative studies in a research to overcome the limitations presented by the quantitative approach.
Research Approach
The study will use both the quantitative and qualitative designs in order to address the research problems. A qualitative research approach is based on the use of various interpretative techniques that help to describe, decode and interpret research issues to establish meaning. On the other hand, a quantitative research design focuses on measurement of numerical data and quantifying relationships. The integration of both quantitative and qualitative approaches will help to provide more accurate and in-depth data than if each method was used single-handedly. It will also contribute to reducing the limitations presented by each of the methods. The quantitative approach is objective, structured and reliable. However, it has two main limitations that are missing the validity and being over systematic. Quantitative research involves surveying of large groups of people and utilization of structured questionnaires. Quantitative survey utilizes a fixed design that arranges in advance the research question as well as the detailed methods of data collection and analysis.
Selecting Respondents
Respondents will be randomly selected. They have to be experts in economic matters as well as sociological aspects, especially those that concern women. A pretest survey involving 50 respondents will be conducted. Its aim would be to enable the researcher estimate the time the survey would take, find out the competency level of the poll and point out the survey’s quality.
Research Ethics
It is important for ethical standards to be maintained in any research because it ensures that researchers and participants are protected in the investigation process. In addition to that, it ensures the retrieval of high-quality data and makes it possible for future studies to have access to the participants within the community. It is also important for research studies to adhere to ethical norms since it plays a vital role in promoting the study's objective. This duty will put into consideration the important ethical issues that govern social research that include confidentiality, honesty, none – discrimination and protection of participants.
About confidentiality, all the information obtained from the participants would be kept confidential. All personal records, as well as communications, will be kept confidential. The study will also be open to new ideas and criticism. The data, results and ideas from this study will be open to sharing. About non-discrimination, the study will avoid discrimination based on sex, age, gender, and ethnicity. Before the study begins, written consents will be obtained from the invited participants. Information obtained from the different participants will be kept confidential. The study will maintain high levels of integrity as well as privacy. Compensation will be provided to the members where necessary.
Data Collection Instruments Content analysis will be used to collect secondary data. It involves reviewing various literature sources in order to collect data that will be used to answer the identified research questions. It involves studying the content of different relevant writings and empirical documentation in a bid to find information. Content analysis is a widely used qualitative research method that mostly involves drawing out and interpreting meaning from the context of both text and numerical data. Structured questionnaires will be utilized to collect primary data. Apart from being inexpensive, they are less intrusive, easy to analyze and makes it possible for researchers to avoid bias. The questionnaire will be divided into two parts with the first part requiring participants to fill in their personal details, namely: age, gender and area of residence. The second part of the questionnaire will present the participants with relevant close-ended questions.
Data Analysis
A quantitative framework would be utilized in data analysis. Its usage makes it possible for results from a sample to be generalized in order to find out patterns, as well as present facts about a population and the phenomenon. Primary data collected from various financial institutions will be confidentially analyzed using the SPSS software. Thematic analysis will be used to evaluate qualitative data. It offers a theoretically flexible and accessible way of analyzing qualitative data. Data will be identified, analyzed and reported in relation to the main patterns. A number of choices that need to be discussed and explicitly considered have to be made when utilizing thematic analysis.

References
Aziz, Fahima. "Trends in labor force participation rates by gender and race." St. Paul, MN Hamline University.. Available at: notizie. unimo. it/campusfile/file/ECO_DEP/file27807. pdf (2009). Retrieved from http://notizie.unimo.it/campusfile/file/ECO_DEP/file27807.pdf
Blau, Francine D., and Lawrence M. Kahn. Female labor supply: Why is the US falling behind?. No. w18702. National Bureau of Economic Research, 2013. Retrieved from http://www.nber.org/papers/w18702.pdf
Dayıoğlu, Meltem, and Murat G. Kırdar. "Determinants of and trends in labor force participation of women in Turkey." Türkiye’de Kadınların İşgücüne Katılımında Belirleyici Faktörler ve Eğilimler.” (2009). Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTTURKEY/147254- 1268836253913/22540873/DeterminantsOfAndTrendsInLaborForceParticipationOfWom enInTurkey.pdf
Kargi, Bilal. "Labor force participation rate and economic growth: observations for Turkey." Universal Journal of Management and Social Sciences 4, no. 4 (2014): 46-54. Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2439480
Kromer, Braedyn, and David Howard. "Labor Force Participation and Work Status of People 65 Years and Older." American Community Survey Briefs (2013). Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/acsbr11-09.pdf
Lahoti, Rahul, and Hema Swaminathan. "Economic growth and female labour force participation in India." IIM Bangalore Research Paper 414 (2013).
Lechman, Ewa. "Female Labor Force Participation and Economic Growth. Re-Examination of U-Shaped Curve." Re-Examination of U-Shaped Curve. (March 16, 2014) (2014). Retrieved from http://www.zie.pg.gda.pl/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=d90636cd- db3f-4531-8d2a-a0611a82308e&groupId=10236
Mujahid, Nooreen, and Naeem uz Zafar. "Economic Growth-Female Labour Force Participation Nexus: An Empirical Evidence for Pakistan." The Pakistan Development Review 51, no. 4 (2012): 565-586. Retrieved from http://www.pide.org.pk/psde/pdf/AGM28/Nooreen%20Mujahid%20and%20Naeem%20u z%20Zafar.pdf
Nathanson, Roby, and Gilad Brand. "Economic Overview of Turkey." Israeli European Policy Network (2011). Retrieved from http://www.macro.org.il/lib/3031793.pdf
Su, Betty W. "US Economy to 2010, The." Monthly Lab. Rev. 124 (2001): 3. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2001/11/art1full.pdf
Toossi, Mitra. "Century of change: The US labor force, 1950-2050, A." Monthly Lab. Rev. 125 (2002): 15. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2002/05/art2full.pdf
Uraz, Arzu, Meltem A. Aran, Müşerref Hüsamoğlu, Dilek Okkalı Şanalmış, and Sinem Capar. "Recent Trends in female labor force participation in Turkey." State Planning Organization of the Republic of Turkey And World Bank Welfare and Social Policy Analytical Work Program Working Paper 2 (2010). Retrieved from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTTURKEY/147254- 1268836253913/22537996/RecentTrendsInFemaleLaborForceParticipationInTurkey.pdf

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