CHAPTER 2

This chapter includes the review of related literature, review of related studies and review of other related Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) which helped the researchers in designing and developing their own CAI that was used in this research.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review includes discussion of technical terms like Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI), multimedia, and review of software packages in mathematics, studies on development, evaluation and validation of CAI materials.

Instruction and Learning

Instruction is the arrangement of information and environment to facilitate learning. By environment, we mean not only where instruction takes place but also the methods, media and equipment needed to convey information and guide the learner’s study. Information and environment can be arranged on a continuum from very formal to very informal. The relationship between information and environment can change depending on the instructional goal. The arrangement of information and the environment is normally the responsibility of the instructor and the designers of media. The choice of the strategy of instruction determines the environment (the methods, media, equipment and facilities) and how the information is assembled and used. The method can range from teacher control to learner control.

Learning is the development of new knowledge, skills, or attitudes when the individual interacts with information and environment. Learning takes place all the time. We learn something just walking down the street and observing what goes on around us, or watching TV, or conversing with other people. But this type of incidental learning is not our major interest as education and training professionals. We are primarily concerned with the learning that takes place in response to our instructional efforts. How we design and arrange instruction has a great deal to do not only with what is learned but also with how the learner uses what is learned.

The instruction/learning process involves the selection, arrangement, and delivery of information in an appropriate environment and how the learner interacts with that information.

A medium is a channel of communication. Derived from the Latin word what?meaning “between”, the term refers to anything that carries information between a source and a receiver. Examples of media are film, television, diagrams, printed materials, computers, and instructors. These are considered instructional media when they carry messages with an instructional purpose. The purpose of media is to facilitate communication.
In any instructional situation, there is a message to be communicated. The message is usually subject matter content, but it may be directions to the learners, questions about the content, feedback on the appropriateness of responses, or other information.

In the relationship between message and medium, the medium carries the message.

Methods

Traditionally, instructional methods have been described as “presentation forms”, such as lecture and discussion. The difference between instructional methods and instructional media are presented as follows: Methods are the procedures of instruction that are selected to help learners achieve the objectives or to internalize the content or message. Media (singular, medium) are carriers of information between a source and a receiver. Such vehicles are considered instructional media when they are used to carry messages intended to change behavior. On the book Instructional Media and Technologies for Learning, Heinich, Molenda and Russel presented ten methods that are applicable to learners of all ages. They are presentation, demonstration, discussion, drill-and-practice, tutorial, cooperative learning, gaming, simulation, discovery and problem solving.

Instructional Design
Instructional Design is the process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for instructional materials and activities (Smith & Ragan, 1999, p.2). The emphasis is on creating a plan for developing instructional materials and activities that increase an individual’s learning. Reigeluth (1983) compared this task with that of an architect. The architect produces a blueprint or plan that effectively integrates the needs of those who will purchase and use the facility, the environment in which it will exist, the costs involved, the appropriate materials, and other design specifications for functionality, safety, and aesthetics. Similarly, instructional experts incorporate learning principles into plans for instructional materials and activities based on analyses of the learners to the situation, and the task or content to be learned.
Although a builder may attempt to build a structure without using the architect’s plans or blueprints, he may encounter problems he could have avoided by using a plan—walls may be in the wrong location, electrical outlets forgotten or misplaced, or improper materials purchased. As with any plan, the major benefit of an instructional plan is the guidance it gives. This does not mean that all instruction should be designed based on a single set of plans (like a subdivision of one-style homes), but rather that specific principles can be used to solve different instructional problems and to produce unique solutions in a variety of situations.

Power of the Plan
The overall instructional plan plays a critical role in directing the selection and use of all other tools within the learning environment. Just as the building contractor uses a plan to determine what materials and construction tool to select and use, so to the teacher and learner should use an instructional plan to determine the methods, techniques, and media they will use. Additionally, the plan helps to determine how and when to present specific sets of information and when additional information is required.
Even though a plan gives teachers direction, it should not be perceived as a rigid structure that dictates regimented, systematic procedures. Whenever learning is required, different types of learners, tasks, and situations all interact, requiring flexibility. The plan provides a means to review alternate possible solutions to instructional problems, assess their potential, and then confidently select the best. If and when those alternatives do not produce desired levels of learning, the plan can be revised and additional alternatives can be selected. Robinson (1981) notes that expert fishermen usually outperform those of lesser ability, not because they know the best bait for a given fish on a specific day, but because they also know the second- and third- best alternatives. Similarly, the power of the instructional plan is that it suggests alternatives and a means whereby they can be investigated and evaluated before investing time and money in developing the final products.
Aspects of instructional design include:
• the overall instructional plan – what t include and how to arrange the components.
• various analysis techniques and method – that help determine both learners’ current skill levels and those needed to accomplish the task.
• a repertoire of methods, techniques, and activities that can be used to increase student learning (Table 1-8)

Integrated Learning Systems

Integrated Learning Systems (ILSs) are the most complex and sophisticated computer systems that function as a teacher. They combine comprehensive computer-assisted instruction (CAI), any or all of the categories mentioned previously, and computer management features into a single networked computer delivery system. They are designed to provide a cycle of instruction, assessment, and prescription for a particular subject matter – all on the computer.
ILSs are usually supplied by a single vendor that provides all of the hardware and software. Leading ILS producers today include CompassLearning and Pearson Digital Learning. While ILSs are expensive, they provide a lot of money. The hardware consists of a Local Area Network (LAN) of computers linked to a large file server that contains all of the software. The software includes fully articulated curriculum in a particular subject area, such as mathematics or language arts, as well as software that tracks students and manages their progress.
Students in school that have ILSs typically use the system regularly, from daily to once or twice per week. The computer delivers instruction, most often tutorials and drill and practice exercises, and testing, and test scoring are all managed by the system. Because the curriculum is well integrated and spans a number of grade levels, students may work on the ILS over a period of years and progress at their own rate. Teachers like the fact that the instruction is individualized. In addition, because the computer handles both the instruction and the assessment, the teacher is freed to provide process individualized assistance, plan ancillary learning activities, and guide the learning process. Administrators like ILSs because they provide detailed information about the levels of mastery of the student body. A recent summary of the effects of using instructional technology in elementary and secondary schools by Kulik (2003) reported that the use of ILSs had an effect to small to be educationally meaningful on students’ achievement in reading. However, the use of ILSs did have a positive effect on students’ achievement in mathematics.
Problems and Pitfalls
We have emphasized the many advantages of using the computer as teacher, and rightly so. CAI has much to offer. However, there are concerns that we must consider, as well. Critics charge that CAI is low-level use of the computer that simply puts a new face on old busywork and that is not consistent with a view of learning as knowledge construction. In some cases, this charge is surely justified. Some drill and practice programs are little more than electronic worksheets. Some tutorials are more electronic page-turners. There are is a tendency for the first uses of a new technology to be simply re-creations of older forms. For example, many early films and television and programs were just stage plays performed in front of a camera; it took a while for these media to develop their own unique forms. In similar fashion, many early CAI programs were simply adaptations of older instructional forms such as paper-and-pencil worksheets. But that is changing. Newer software releases tend to make better use of the computer. However, it remains your responsibility to see that CAI is used productively in the classroom to help students learn and not simply as busywork.
Learning by Programme
Always, improvements in teaching process have been thought of and efforts made to implement the same. Some sorts of researches have always been going on in this field with the ulterior motives of all around betterment. The chief drawbacks of the traditional system of classroom teaching are – it does not cater to the needs of all sitting in the class. Some of them are satisfied, some remain dissatisfied and some rather curse the situations. Population explosion and hence over crowded classes is another challenge which hinders qualitative improvement. The decreasing number of casualty of teachers continuously adds to the problem of deterioration and satisfaction. There has been thinking about individualized teaching which could be taken as qualitatively good.
In this age of science and technology which may be called the age of computer science, the term programmed has become quite popular. Its meaning is to give instruction in as systematic and quenched manner. Here, the instructions have to be clear cut in every way and the material is to be in a sequence. That quickens the need of learning. Its basic principle is : “ Every part of teaching system is subject to the rule, that whatever fails to do its job should be replaced.”
Programmed learning does not mean only self-instructional material. Rather it refers to the systematic way of developing structural material and also of designing teaching strategies which combine many different methods in order to optimize learning. The public principle of Programmed Learning is:” Every part of teaching term is subject to the rule that whatever fails to do its job should be replaced.”
From layman point of view, Programmed Learning means learning by preparing a programme. Programme is a device to control the students’ behaviour and help them to learn without the supervision of a teacher. Undoubtedly, a programme is the subject to be learnt by the pupil. Programme learning is the arrangement of material to be learnt, it graded step of difficulty, in such a sequence and in such a manner of presentation that it will result in the most efficient rate of understanding and retention. According to an American psychologist, it is “… the first application of laboratory technique utilized in the study of learning process to the practical problems of education.”
The art of programming is the art of gathering together many minds, teachers, the subject matter experts, educational technologists and from their interaction producing something which will teach and teach well, in the morning, after lunch, to slow learners, to fast, to white and to coloured.
Programmed learning is highly individualized which is a systematic instructional strategy for classroom as well as self-learning. It works wonderfully in the case pf correspondence courses being run in the open universities of country.
The programme may be of several physical forms. It may be a book, may be in the form of tapes or strips of paper, may be series of micro filmed slides; it may be auditory material to be used with a tape recorder. All these forms of programmes can be prepared by the experts and put to use for teaching purposes. They will help any and every type of learner and the results are bound to be positive.
Programme material refers to programme, which consist of a reproduceable sequence of instructional items designed to produce a measurable behaviourable change in the student.”
Smith and Moore says, “The field of programmed learning or auto instruction materials, is a rapidly developing, extremely exciting movement towards the further development of an exciting movement towards the further development of an instructional technology based in part, on certain principles of psychology derived from laboratory studies of human and animal learning which serve to confirm, in part, the procedures and techniques used by nearly all truly great teachers of the past.”
In this regard, Gene C. Fusco observes: “Proponents of the programmed self instructions is the programmed self-instruction maintain that this is not new method of teaching; the basic procedure is found as far back as the Socrates dialogue. What is new, they say, is the development of a science and technology based on a method employed by the great teacher of the past.”
One-Computer Classroom
Classrooms with a single computer are common in many schools across the country. Despite the fact that millions of computers are now installed in U.S schools, the one-computer classroom remains a fixture of the educational landscape. What can be done with single computer in the classroom? The answer is, a lot!
All of the methods of using computers in the classroom discussed in this chapter can apply to the one-computer classroom. Students can work on computer-assisted instruction, either individually or in small groups. The computer can be used as a productivity tool, for example, to graph data from a science experiment or make an in-class multimedia presentation. One computer can even be used, with appropriate management, for “computer-as-learner” activities.
One simple but useful approach to utilizing limited hardware is to provide individual students access in rotation. This model is especially popular at the elementary level, where the computer is often established as one of a number of learning centers through which students rotate. For example, primary-age learners working on basic arithmetic skills might rotate through several related learning stations featuring concrete manipulatives, traditional flash cards, and a computer drill and practice game. While time on the computer is necessarily limited in this approach, it does not give an entire class at least some access. You, the teacher, must effectively manage students’ access to the computer to avoid conflicts and to keep those students who are not working on the computer productively engaged in other activities. Sign-up sheets, schedules, fixed time intervals, and other similar techniques can help with the management challenge.
Students can also use the computer in small groups. Research suggests that for many types of computers-assisted instruction there are benefits to having small groups, as opposed to individuals; work on CAI programs (Johnson, Johnson, & Stanne, 1985; Lou, Abrami, & d’Apollonia, 2001). Cooperating students can learn from and help one another; whereas single student might become confused or suck. Small groups can also use the computer to do such things as create presentations or develop hypermedia projects. Even whole-class use of a single computer is possible. Using an appropriate large-group display, you might lead a whole class through a session with a program such as The Oregon Trail, calling on different students to make decisions along the trail. Some CAI programs are even designed to support whole-class use with a single computer. A notable example is Tom Snyder Productions’ Decision. Decisions’ software line. The whole-class activities in these role playing simulations are orchestrated by a single computer.
Finally, although the emphasis in this chapter is on students’ learning, one should not overlook the single classroom computer as a tool for you, the teacher. Word processing software and attached to a printer, you can produce printed instructional materials you can then copy for the whole class to use. Many textbooks today come with computerized question banks; you can make copies of selected questions to help guide review activities. You may use a database to keep student records, a spreadsheet to maintain student grades, and so on. As some experts have argued, if you have only one computer in a classroom, the most useful place for it is on your own desk!

Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI)

“Computers are amazingly patient teachers, “says Jan Davidson (1995), “they can spur creative thinking, promote enterprise and whet curiosity”.
The learner-computer dialogue is highly interactive. This interactivity helps keep learners’ attention focused on what they are doing. Computer assisted instruction can also help motivate slow learners to work harder and longer. By tailoring the difficulty level of the problems to the abilities of each learner, the computer can insure that each learner will receive a challenge appropriate to motivate him. Having a sense of one’s progress is also motivational, and the computer provides this through immediate feedback and score keeping. Through immediate feedback that a computer assisted instruction provides, it forces the student to notice his mistakes, helping to prevent making these mistakes again and again which makes matters worse. Computer assisted instruction also helps learners focus their attention on the matters at hand. Computer assisted instruction also helps students to move at their own pace (Byte, March 1995).
Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) (Stern, 1986) is one major use of computers in education. The use of computers to teach falls generically under the heading Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI). The term implies that the computer is used for instructional purposes; that is it serves as a teaching machine.
Computer Assisted Instruction may be defined as “a process in which the learner interacts directly with the lessons displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) or … printed by a terminal that provides a hard copy” (O’Neal, Kauffman and Smith, 1982). According to Knapper, CAI as originally conceived was a direct descendant of programmed instruction “and many early uses of computers for teaching purposes constituted adaptations of the teaching machine. CAI is the use of the computer as an interactive delivery mechanism in the learning or teaching process. This simply means that the student is taking instructions from a computer to learn about a particular subject matter with minimum assistance or interference from the teacher.
CAI is used for a wide variety of subjects and for virtually all ages and achievement levels. Computer-Assisted Instructional systems may have one CPU and any number of terminals. These terminals can access the CPU at any time; moreover many terminals have simultaneous access to the CPU, so those different lessons can be taught at the same time.
The computer is ideally suited for CAI using programmed-instruction format for several reasons:
 Interactive ability. The computer can interact directly with the student, analyze student problems, skip to alternative texts, “reward” correct answers with approving responses, and so on. The ability of a computer to interact and have a dialogue is a critical feature of CAI.
 Storage capability, flexibility, and logical control. The computer can store instructional material and branch to various modules much quicker and more conveniently than can students using books.
 Display features. The computer provides an electronic flexibility that transcends the typical text approach. Animated characters can dance across the screen, making a text more interesting; graphic displays in color can be produced; and slide projection is possible as well as verbal instructions.
Lesson formats in CAI can be tutorial in which basic information is imparted; standard drill and practice, problem solving, simulation, games, or a combination of two or more of these formats.
 A tutorial presents material and actually teaches it to students. Tutorials are programs intended to impart and actively teach principles and theories. In theory, the well-designed tutorial is programmed to detect the student’s level of competence and adjust the difficulty of the material accordingly. Some tutorials are imaginatively designed to engage students in a friendly exchange of dialog between students and a computer.
 Drill-and-practice drills the student on previously learned material. It reinforces old lessons rather than teach new ones. Students must know first the principles before they can do the drill and practice. This type of CAI usually sets a time limit for solving problems.
 A simulation models a situation in the real world impossible to duplicate in the classroom or dangerous to perform (perhaps a laboratory experiment) because it may have harmful consequences if errors occur. This is one of the major formats of CAI that accounts for a good deal of the success of CAI and for its future potential. Programs that mimic the principles, causes, and effects found in reality are known as simulations.
Simulations are clever at mimicking and compressing the principles behind an experience that might otherwise take tedious months or years to witness. Computers are used, for example, to simulate flight conditions so that student pilots and student traffic controllers can make decisions and have those decisions analyzed without endangering the lives of people. The computer displays a specific situation, the student must make adjustments, and the computer displays the results. Of course, such students are expected to have actual, real-life experience as well, but these simulations are extremely effective tool for enhancing the educational process.
Simulation is most beneficial when:
a) the necessary equipment is not available because it is too expensive, too dangerous, or too complex for student use;
b) the sample size available in the real world is not large enough to allow generalizations (e.g. medical students need numerous cases to generalize about diagnosis);
c) experiments require an extended period (e.g. genetics); experimentation is not directly available (in subjects such as politics, sociology, ecology); and
d) exploring alternative management decision strategies in the commercial or manufacturing sectors is not feasible.
 Gaming involves introducing an element of competition or the concept of winning into the program.
 Problem solving involves applying learned skills and/or information to the solution of some problem.
 Testing in computer programs is similar to testing in any instructional format implemented via computer-managed instruction. The program itself as to timing, frequency, remediation, and the reporting of results may control it.

The Roles of Media in Instruction
Media can serve many roles in instruction. The instruction may be dependent on the presence of a teacher, or instructor-based. Even in the situation, media may be heavily used by the teacher. On the other hand, the instruction may not require a teacher. Such instructor-independent instruction is often called “self-instruction” even though it is guided by whoever designed the media.

Instructor-Based Instruction
The most common use of media in an instructional situation is for supplemental support of the “live” instructor in the classroom. Certainly, properly designed instructional media can enhance and promote learning and support teacher-based instruction. But their effectiveness depends on the instructor. Research has long indicated importance of the instructor’s role in effective use of instructional media. For example, early studies showed that when teachers introduced films, relating them to learning objectives, the amount of information students gained from the films increased. Later research confirmed and expanded on these original findings. Ausubel, for example, developed the concept of “advance organizers” as an aid to effective….

The Use of Visuals
We are a visual society, one that has experienced the increasing production and distribution of visual messages in recent years. Television comes immediately to mind, but images are all around us. New technologies of printing and reproduction have also contributed to the flood of visual messages in book, periodicals, and newspapers as never before. We are bombarded with visual messages on billboards and posters. Advertising of all kinds has become increasingly visual. Product instructions are becoming less verbal and more illustrative. Highway signs (especially international driving signs) are almost totally visual. Even T-shirt makers have gotten into the act!
From an instructional point of view, we know that most people are visually oriented. They learn about 10 percent from listening, but over 80 percent from what they see. More importantly, they remember only about 20 percent of what they hear, but over 50 percent of what they see and hear. The Functions of Visuals
The primary function of a visual as a communication device is to serve as a more concrete referent to meaning than the spoken or written word. Words are arbitrary symbols. They don’t look or sound like the thing they represent. Visuals, however, are ironic. They normally resemble the thing they represent. As such, they serve as concrete clues to meaning. It is a general principle of human communication that the likelihood of successful communication is increased when concrete referents are present. When the thing being discussed is not at hand, the next best referent is a visual representation of it.
Visuals can also motivate learners by increasing their interest in a text or presentation. They attract attention, sustain attention, and generate emotion. Reiteration is another important function of visuals. They can underscore the information in printed material or verbal narration by presenting it in a different form. Visuals can simplify information that is difficult to understand and remember. Charts and diagrams, especially those that make analogies to familiar concepts, can make it easier to store and retrieve such information. They can also serve as an organizational function by illustrating the relationships among elements or concepts being studied.

Visual Preferences of Learners
Teachers have to make appropriate choices between effective illustrations and preferred illustrations. People do not necessarily learn best from the kinds of pictures they prefer. For example, research on picture preferences indicates that children in upper elementary school tend to

1. Prefer color to black and white
2. Choose photographs over drawings
3. Choose realism in form and color
4. Prefer simple over complex illustrations (younger children).
5. Prefer complex over simple illustrations (older children).

Most learners prefer colored visuals over black-and-white visuals. However, there is no significant difference in the amount of learning except where color is related to the content to be learned. For example, when workers must learn assemble electrical components with different colored wires; the presence of color is essential. Photographs are preferred over line drawings by most learners, even though in many situations drawings are more effective for learning. Drawing can highlight the important details. Even though many learners prefer very realistic visuals over abstract representations, teachers must strike a balance between the two to achieve their instructional purposes. Young learners prefer simple visuals, whereas older students and adults prefer more complex visuals. Nevertheless, simpler visuals are usually more effective, whatever the age group.

Using Visuals in Instruction
Students can learn from visuals in two ways. First, they must be able to “read” visuals accurately, understand the elements of visuals, and interpret them. This skill is referred to as decoding. Second, they should be able to create visuals as a tool to communicate effectively with others and be able to express themselves through visuals. This skill is called encoding. The development of both decoding and encoding skills requires practice.

Digital Images
Many tutors use a personal collection of slides in their teaching. Too often the students can only see those images for a few minutes before they are returned to the filing cabinet. Technically, it is relatively simple to digitize the images and make them available on the Web so that they can be viewed whenever the students wish. In addition, the tutor can create assignments based around the use and analysis of images – this is a powerful technique in most disciplines, especially since it doesn’t rely on access to specific books.
Slides or negatives are inexpensive to digitize – currently around 045p per negative or 70p per slide. Most high street photographic shops can provide this service. Your pictures will be stored as high quality image files on a CD ROM disk. You will need to use image–editing software to create lower-quality copies of these files to include in word-processed documents presentations or Web pages.
Photographic prints can be digitized using a scanner. These low-cost devices look like a tiny photocopier and plug in to your PC. They come with image-editing software that acts like a digital darkroom so you can change the brightness and color balance, remove unwanted details (such as ‘red-eye’ from flask photos) and add text if needed. Scanners can also digitize printed images from books or magazines, although you should be aware of the copyright restrictions detailed in section 2.4

If you want to avoid scanning, you could use a digital camera to take any photos needed. The quality of modern digital cameras id more than acceptable for the uses discussed they have the advantage of no film or developing cost. The image files are usually stored on special memory cards that plug into the camera, but these are expensive and can only hold a few high quality images. In the near future, miniature disk drives will allow hundreds of high quality images. The images are downloaded from the camera to your PC via special cable for more permanent storage.
The main disadvantage of digital cameras is the reliance on batteries and the speed at which they exhaust them, so take plenty of spares if you are using one of a field trip; cameras memory card for new ones. Second disadvantage is the puny flash units built-in to most digital cameras; only the most expensive models have a connector that allows a powerful external flash gone to be used.

Advantages:
 A CD – Rom is a safe way to store a selection of slides.
 Scanners can be used to acquire images from many sources.
 You can include your images in documents, presentations or poster created using software like Microsoft Word or PowerPoint.
 You can include your images on Web pages.

Disadvantages:
 A CD – Rom is an archive medium, so if your pictures are images are time sensitive, this isn’t an ideal choice.
 Accessing large, high quality images using the internet via a modem and phone line can be very slow. It is a good idea to use thumbnail images (small version of your picture) that act as a link to the large picture. Your students can then decide if they want to look at any particular picture in detailed.

The CAI program has the following features:
1. A complete set of instructions that student can easily follow.
2. An ability to anticipate student responses. On the simplest level, this means that the program should be able to accept “Y” for “yes” “T” for “true”, and so on. On a more sophisticated level, it should test for alternative responses in a quiz, be able to interpret key responses (even wrong ones), and so on.
3. An interesting and challenging student-machine dialogue. The program should enable students to ask questions, ask for additional help, skip sections of text, and even express their opinions on the subject matter and the pedagogic approach.
4. A sophisticated logical control sequence. Branching instructions are the cornerstone to CAI programs. These programs must be flexible enough to skip to various modules, review previous sections as necessary, skip to question-answer sequences when the students feels ready, and so on.

Digital Audio
There are many disciplines in which a sound clip can be a useful teaching aid. Examples include:
 Selected examples of contemporary advertising in business, management and media studies or social sciences.
 Extracts from historical speeches in politics, history or social sciences.
 Authors’ readings of poetry or literature.
 Recordings of healthy and abnormal heart sounds in medicine.
 Recordings of engine noise or vibration in engineering

Modern software makes it very easy to create digital sound files from original recordings on tape or CD. Recordings from vinyl records, radio, TV or a microphone are best stored on tape first. Good quality cassette tape is one option or use DAT (digital audio tape) for the highest quality.
Advantages
 The sound clip can be carefully selected and edited so it only contains the material required.
 The sound clip can easily be replayed, for example to assist in comparing two clips.
 The sound clip can be made available on the Web for further study and revision by the students.
Disadvantages
 If the sound clip is part of a multimedia presentation, the venue will have to have suitable amplification and speakers connected to the PC used. The speakers commonly available with PCs are inadequate for anything but small groups. The PC will also have to have a sound card.
 If the sound clip is available on the Web, the PCs used by the students will need a sound card installed and either speakers or headphones. You may find that most, if not all of these PCs lack these, since they lead to either noisy computer rooms or stolen headphones.
 Sound files can get quite large and may not fit on a floppy disk. You will need a CD writer, ZIP drive (or similar) or server to back up or transfer files.

Digital Video
Video clips can be digitized, stored as highly compressed files, distributed using LANs or the Internet and displayed on modern computers. The quality ranges from poor (small windows, jerky movement) to very good (full screen, smooth motion) depending on the type of digital video and the power of the computer used to view it.
Digital video delivered using the Internet is best suited to short video clips that can be selected and played ‘on demand’. Students can view these clips again and again when it is needed. High-quality, full-screen video requires distribution via fast LAN networks or on CD Rom.

Advantages
 Dangerous or expensive experiments can be demonstrated. The video can also highlight common mistakes and show what happens if things go wrong.
 The equipment and procedures used in practical sessions and field work can be demonstrated to prepare students in advance and make the best use of their time.
 Additional video material can be used to illustrate a point. You may need professional help to edit your material, although modern software makes this a relatively easy process.

 Case studies of clients can be presented. You have several options here: o You film ‘clients’ or ‘patients’ with their consent for this to be used educationally (if you want this to be a commercial product, you will need further clearance from those involved); o You film as above with permissions, but may wish to make the person anonymous by disguising the face; o You find an actor to do this for you. You could take the transcript from a real case (as long as the text is anonymous)
 Students can use video to record field trips or experiments.
Disadvantages
 Video is an archive medium and cannot be changed, so it is less useful for material that will date quickly.
 The cost of making a video may be high – especially if you use actors.
 Creating and using digital video requires a lot of technical expertise, although modern software and hardware are demystifying and simplifying the process.

Teaching Computer Graphics
Computer Graphics deals with fundamentals concepts, computer techniques and algorithms for generating two and three dimensional graphical objects. As this is a practical subject, it is essential that students have hands-on experience. However, a number of problems have been identified which hinder students’ progress and prevent the objective of the course from being fully realized. These include:
(i) Students often find it difficult to fully comprehend many graphics algorithms because of the large amount of detail involved. In particular, a large number of these algorithms are of a recursive nature that makes them very efficient to implement, but harder to follow because many details are hidden. It would greatly facilitate students’ understanding if the working of such algorithms were illustrated graphically and dynamically.
(ii) Due to resource limitations, the number of students in the course always exceeds the number of graphical workstations available.
(iii) The amount of supervised lab time for each student every week id limited due to practical constraints on staff time.
(iv) The Computer Graphics unit is one of the most popular and often appeals to some students who have a misconception that it is much easier to learn graphics than other subjects because graphics is visual. Such students get very discouraged when they realized that most graphics algorithms are based on theoretical results in mathematics and physics.
Due to these problems, there is a need for supplementary courseware which guides students through fundamental concepts in graphics using visual means (e.g. Images and Animation). Students can then work unsupervised and at their own pace. It is also envisaged that students will develop a range of independent learning strategies within a media-rich environment.

Presentations
Computer presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint can be used to:
• Prepare printed OHTs to support a lecture;
• Display the slides using a computer and data projector;
• Publish the slides as Web pages;
• Produce poster displays;
• Create diagrams

Most professional and conference talks are now prepared and delivered with the help of presentation software. The software is simple to use and allows you to easily add, edit and rearrange slides as you think through what you want to say – in other words, the act of creating the presentation helps you develop your talk.

Advantages
• Presentation software comes with design templates that instantly add a professional look to your slides. You can easily create your own template to define an institutional, departmental, or personal ‘look’ that can be applied to any presentation.
• The slides can be edited and reorganized when the presentation needs to be updated. This can be done literally minutes before the talk, if need be.
• The slides can include text, images, diagrams and charts. These are either created using the software or imported from another program (for example a chart from a spreadsheet program).
• The slides can be presented using an OHP once you have printed them as black and white OHTs using a laser printer, or as color.
• OHTs using a color inkjet printer. Remember to use the right sort of transparency film for the type of printer you are using.
• The slides can also be printed out on paper as student handouts, three or six to a side to save paper. Students really appreciate these since they can concentrate on what say and add their own notes to the handouts.
• You can also create your own speaker notes based on your slides, which include facts, quotes, references and prompts not on the slides themselves.
• The slides can be presented directly from a computer if you have a projection device. This means that you can make use of color animation effects and multimedia – color photos, sound and video clips.
• If presenting using a computer, selected slides can easily be ‘hidden‘ or ‘unhidden’ to customize the presentation to a specific audience. Links can be added that enable jumps to different parts of presentation, allowing you to change your talk depending on feedback from the audience.
• Presentation comes with drawing tools that enables you to create neat and attractive diagrams. You can draw rectangles, circles, text, and arrows as well as more complex shapes. A huge range of clip-art pictures is available to instantly illustrate almost any topic – for example medical illustrations. These diagrams can include simple animation effects if you present using a computer.
• Presentations can be easily saved as set of Web pages, ready for publishing on a Web site. Each slide has its own page and you can add more information below the slide if you wish, such as comments, tasks to do or links to other Web pages.
• Presentation software can also be used to prepare posters and signs of all types and sizes.

Disadvantages
• The use of OHTs or computer presentations can result inflexible talks that cannot easily be adjusted in response to audience feedback.
• The dynamic act of drawing a diagram on a whiteboard or OHT is sometimes more effective than showing a static pre-drawn diagram.

The Hearing/Listening Process
Hearing and listening are not the same thing, although they are, of course interrelated. At the risk of some oversimplification, we might say that hearing is a physiological process, whereas listening is a psychological process.
Physiologically, hearing is a process in which sound waves entering the outer ear are transmitted to the eardrum, converted into mechanical vibrations in the middle ear, and changed in the inner ear into nerve impulses that travel to the brain.
The psychological process of listening begins with someone’s awareness of and attention to sounds or speech patterns, proceeds through identification and recognition of specific auditory signals, and ends in comprehension.
The hearing/listening process is also a communication/learning process. As with visual communication and learning, a message is encoded by a sender and decoded by a receiver. The quality of the encoded message is affected by the ability of the sender to express the message clearly and logically. The quality of the decoded message is affected by the ability of the receiver to comprehend the message.
The efficiency of communication is also affected by the hearing/listening process as the message passes from sender to receiver. The message can be affected by physical problems such as impaired hearing mechanisms. It also can be affected by auditory fatigue. The brain has a remarkable capacity for filtering out sounds it doesn’t want or need to hear.
There are a number of techniques the teacher can use to improve student listening abilities:
1. Directed listening.
2. Following directions.
3. Listening for main ideas, details, or inferences.
4. Using context in listening.
5. Analyzing the structure of a presentation.
6. Distinguishing between relevant and irrelevant information.

Characteristics of Audio Media
Advantages
Audio media have many desirable attributes. First and foremost, they tend to be inexpensive forms of instruction. In the case of audiotape, once the tapes and equipment have been purchased, there is no additional cost because the tape can be erased after use and a new message recorded.
 Audio materials are readily available and very simple to use. They can be adapted easily to any vocabulary level and can be used for group or individual instruction.
 Students who cannot read can learn from audio media. For young non-reading students, audio can provide early language experiences.
 Audio can present stimulating verbal messages more dramatically than print can. With a little imagination on the part of the teacher, audio can be very versatile.
 Audiocassette recorders are very portable and can even be used “in the field” with battery power. Cassette recorders are ideal for home study.
 Many students already have their own cassette machines. Audiotapes are easily duplicated in whatever quantities are needed.

Limitations
 As with all media, audio instructional devices have limitations. Audio tends to fix the sequence of a presentation even though it is possible to rewind the tape and hear a recorded segment again or advance the tape to an upcoming portion.
 Without someone standing over them or speaking with face to face, some students do not pay attention to the presentation. They may hear the presentation but not listen to and comprehend it.
 The initial expense of playback and recording equipment may be a problem. Development of audio materials by the instructor is time consuming. Determining the appropriate pace for presenting information can be difficult if your listeners have a wide range of listening skills and experiential backgrounds.
 Storage and retrieval of audiotapes and phonograph records can also cause problems.

Audio Presentation Techniques
• Use informal notes rather than a complete script. Reading from a script may sound very boring. If you feel you must work with a more formal script, remember that preparing a good script requires special writing and reading skills.
• Use index cards for notes rather than handling large sheets of paper near the microphone. If your students will be using a study guide while listening to the tape, make your notes on the study guide and use it while making the recording.
• Use a conversational tone. Talk as you would normally talk to a friend. Explore the subject with the student, don’t lecture at them. o Vary your tone of voice frequently. o Speak cheerfully and enthusiastically. o Enunciate clearly. o Speak rapidly (most people can listen faster that the average person talks). o Minimize “uh’s” and other distracting speech habits.
• Direct the student’s attention to what you will discuss before discussing it. Tell the students what to look for. For example, if the diagram is on page 4, then tell the listener, “Look at the diagram on page 4. There you will see… “The same technique is necessary if you are using slides in conjunction with the audiotapes. “As you see in Slide 6, the process starts in the upper right-hand corner and proceeds… “
• Provide a brief musical interlude (approximately ten seconds) as a signal for the students to turn off the tape recorder and perform any activities or exercises. The student can then return to the tape, hear the music again, and know that nothing has been missed.
• Include a tone or other non-vocal signal to indicate when to advance slides rather than continually repeating “Change to the next slide.” Electronic tone devices are available for this purpose, a door chime can be used, or a simple technique for producing your own signal is to tap a pen or spoon on a half-full drinking glass.

Software Categories
There are several categories of programs like applications, tutorials, drill and practice, instructional games, and reference. Each has its own instructional purpose.

Tutorials
Tutorial are programs that teach students new concepts or skills. After the program provides instruction, it generally checks students’ understanding by asking questions or providing practice before moving onto the next level. Unlike drill and practice programs, tutorials teach before they test.
Many programs contain tutorials contain to teach users how to use a particular feature of the program. For example, a drill and practice program may reward a user with a game at the end of a drill and use a tutorial to teach the user how to play the game the tutorial category. Some programs do offer a combination of teaching strategies designed to teach the instructional objectives of a program, however. For example, a phonics program may include tutorial, drill and practice, and discovery sections to teach users about phonics.
Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing by Learning Company is a popular tutorial for teaching students keyboarding skills. It provides an introduction to keyboarding and presents keyboarding drills that gradually become more difficult as the students advances. The program tracks students’ progress and provides remediation when necessary.
Another example of a tutorial is Math Concepts Step-by-Step by Gamco. The program provides interactive tutorials to help students ready to move on to more advance concepts or for students who need remediation. Practice and test options assess students’ understanding as they move through the program. Teachers are able to track students’ progress through the program, too.
Tutorials are popular for teaching different languages, procedural skills, and new concepts.

Drill and Practice
Drill and practice programs are designed to reinforce concepts and skills that have already been taught. They test before they teach. For example, in Reading Who? Reading You! by Sunburst, students receive groups of words in small increments to help them with letter and word knowledge. They receive positive reinforcement for correct answers and opportunities to try again for incorrect answers. Students build on their skills as they advance through the program.
Many drill and practice programs are highly motivating. Several come in game formats or offer games as a reward for students’ work. For example, in Word Munchers Deluxe by The Learning Company, students click on correct answers within a 3D animated game board. They are provided with repetitive practice on word identification, rhyming, phonics, and more. In Turbo Math Facts by Nordic students solve math problems to earn money to buy speedy cars for an interactive race.
Programs vary in sophistication. Several programs allow teachers to customize activities or enter content. Many track students’ progress and provide different levels of difficulty. Some programs provide easier or more difficult problems based on the students’ performance. Immediate feedback helps students assess their performance, and printable records help teachers evaluate students’ progress.
Like any software, the decision to use drill and practice software should be based on the students’ needs. Many students enjoy the game play of drill and practice programs. Unfortunately, in many classrooms, students end up playing “games” on the computer even though they have previously mastered the content or skills contained in the program. This results in poor instructional use of the computer and reinforces the misconception that computers are just for playing games.

Instructional Games
There are several categories of instructional games, including adventure, role-playing, board, TV, quiz, word, and logic games. Instructional games are sometimes competitive, posing students against students, the computer, or time. Whereas drill and practice programs may be competitive and include game formats, instructional games teach or reinforce instructional content without drilling or providing repetitive skills practice to students.
There are two levels of instructional games: those that engage students in higher order thinking skills (requiring them to conduct research, problem solve, or synthesize and evaluate information) and those that focus on application, comprehension, or memory skills. For example, some instructional games like Africa Inspirer and The Great Solar System Rescue by Tom Snyder Productions require students to conduct research, analyze information, and use problem-solving skills. Other programs, such as Carmen Sandiego’s ThinkQuick Challenge by The Learning Company and All Star Review by Tom Snyder Productions, present information in a game format, testing students’ ability to recall information previously taught. Carmen Sandiego’s ThinkQuick Challenge presents information in a quiz show format, and All Star Review challenge students in a baseball game setting. Students receive hits and advance bases for correct answers. Teachers can create their own content for both programs.
Some instructional games provide students with role-playing opportunities like simulations, but there are right and wrong answers versus multiple outcomes. For example, wherein the USA is Carmen San Diego? by The Learning Company students assume the role of a detective and travel throughout the United States, picking up clues to track down the list of suspects. If students travel to the wrong state, they receive feedback indicating they are in the wrong place. There is only once correct path to find the criminal.

SYNTHESIS

Instruction is the arrangement of information and environment to facilitate learning. This includes the methods, media and equipment needed to convey information and guide the learner’s study. Media can serve many roles in instruction. The instruction may be dependent on the presence of a teacher, or instructor-based.

The related literature discussed the following:

• The Roles of Media in Instruction
• The Instruction/Learning Process
• Integrated Learning Systems (ILSs), which are the most complex and sophisticated computer systems that function as a teacher.
• Programmed Learning, also defined the term “programme” which is a device to control the students’ behaviour and help them to learn without the supervision of a teacher.
• The art of programming that for individual learning.
• Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI), which is one major use of computers in education. The use of computers to teach falls generically under the heading Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI). The term implies that the computer is used for instructional purposes; that is it serves as a teaching machine.
• The learner-computer dialogue
• Rules in Choosing the Appropriate Visuals for Learners.
• The Hearing/Listening Process, followed by the Characteristics of Audio Media
• Types of Media

RELATED STUDIES
The researchers reviewed some related studies about the development and evaluation of Computer Assisted Instructional material that gave them an idea on how the courseware may be designed, developed and evaluated.

Charlie T. Carreon (2001- 2002) made a research that aims to develop and evaluate a computer-assisted instruction in photosynthesis. The study has three phases, namely: design, development and evaluation. The design phase includes brainstorming, story boarding and flowcharting while in the development phase, was the translation of the story board written in paper with the flowchart as a guide. On the last part of the study is the evaluation phase wherein the evaluation materials were selected, test groups were identified, the program was field-tested that yielded responses and suggestions which were analyzed and incorporated on the next revision. Final revisions were done after which another evaluation by the subject experts was conducted. The result of the evaluation revealed a favorable response about the use of Computer-Assisted Instruction on Photosynthesis. Having the mean rating of 4.8 on quality of content, 4.6 on instructional feasibility, 4.79 on technical usability and 4.84 on appropriateness on language style, which were interpreted as “highly acceptable” by the respondents. The developed CAI was found to be an effective supplementary learning tool in teaching biology.

Franick Dominic R. Dapitan (2000- 2001) conducted a research about the development and evaluation of Computer-Assisted Instruction in T.H.E. IV;
Business Management II-Bookkeeping. The researcher aimed to address two questions, a) how was the CAI on Bookkeeping developed?; and b) what are the perceptions of the respondents to the developed CAI in terms of objectives, quality of content, instructional quality, technical quality and significance? The CAI lessons were developed using the authoring tool Authorware 4.0. The design of this tutorial type of CAI involved the collections of resources, and evaluation of other CAI materials. The development and implementation included the production of the prototype, revisions and the preparation of the courseware. The formative evaluation incorporated the selection of the evaluation materials, identification of the respondents, field-testing of the program and checking of responses and inclusion of suggestions before another evaluation was made by the CAI experts. The researcher used the Likert scaling technique ( using a scale of 5- strongly agree, 4- agree, 3- disagree, 2- strongly disagree, and 1-not applicable).revealed that the CAI material was deemed highly agreeable by the respondents who gave a mean of 4.65 for significance, 4.54 for technical quality, 4.5 for content quality, 4.45 for instructional quality, and 4.35 for objectives. However, the evaluators suggested that the CAI in Bookkeeping restate the objectives to meet the demands of the content and to modify the program with assistance of CAI experts, furthermore teachers should be given the opportunity to attend formal training on the development of CAI, and that the developed CAI be used as aid or enhancement tool in teaching bookkeeping to high school students.

Evangeline Arayat Caratao (2001- 2002) made a research about the development and evaluation of Computer Assisted Instruction on Human Circulatory System. There were four phases on the study namely: needs analysis phase, design phase, development phase and evaluation phase. In the needs analysis phase, information on the student’s characteristics and needs were gathered. The design phase included the setting goals, choosing a topic, specifying the purpose, and collecting information from variety of sources. Story boarding and flowcharting were also included. In the development phase, story boards and flowcharts were translated into the computer. Macromedia was used in the development of CAI material. In the evaluation phase, ten (10) Biology teachers from different schools evaluated the CAI material as content experts; seven (7) from Sta. Catalina National High School, two (2) from Makati Science High School and one (1) from Manuel S. Enverga University. Ten (10) MITE students evaluated the CAI material as computer experts. The research evaluators were given time to explore the CAI material at their pace. The positive response of the evaluators on the courseware verified that the CAI material could be used as a supplementary tool in teaching Human Circulatory System to high school students.

On I2002, Victor R. Fedirigan made a research on the Development and Evaluation of a Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) Material on Sources of Energy for Electricity. The study is intended for first year high school students. The two research questions investigated in the study were (1) How was the CAI courseware on Sources of Energy for Electricity developed? (2) What were the perceptions of the respondents on the acceptability of the developed CAI material in terms of (a) content quality (b) instructional quality and (c) technical quality?
The development of the said CAI material involved four phases, which are as follows: analysis, design, development and evaluation. In the first phase namely Analysis phase, the researcher examined what were needed to be done in order to arrive at a quality based courseware and to determine the users who will garner great benefits from the material developed. In the Design phase, questions like: “What will be included?” and “How will the developed CAI material look like?” were answered. The Development phase involved with applying the whole concepts and designs together. The last phase is the Evaluation phase that aimed to establish if what was created was what was actually intended by the researcher. This phase included the: (1) Data Gathering Method and Instrument; and (2) Statistical Treatment.
The researcher chose different set of evaluators to evaluate the develop CAI material. For the technical aspect of the evaluation, the researcher chose five (5) students taking up Master in Information Technology Education (MITE) at the Asia Pacific College (APC). They were chosen because of their extensive background on computers.
For the instructional and content of the evaluation of the CAI material, ten (10) first year Science high school teachers from the Las Piñas National High School, Las Piñas City were involved.
The results of the evaluation are as follows: on content quality, a mean rating of 4.67 was obtained with a standard deviation of 0.65; for instructional quality, a mean of 4.72 with a standard deviation of 0.46 was derived; and for the technical quality, a mean of 5.00 with a standard deviation of 0.0 was computed. An overall mean rating of 4.79 was arrived at. With the result of the evaluation it shows that the respondents “strongly agreed” to the usage of the developed CAI material in the classroom setting.

Frusa, on year 2002 conducted a research on the Development and Evaluation of Computer-Assisted Instruction on Information Technology Concepts. The main objective of the said research was to develop and evaluate an interactive Computer-Assisted Instruction on Information Technology Concepts for high school students and or pre-novice computer users that may find the courseware beneficial. The research sought to answer the following questions: (1) How was the Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) on Information Technology Concepts developed? (2) What are the perceptions of the three groups of respondents on the acceptability of the developed CAI in terms of content, instructional and technical qualities?
The development of the material was based from the archetype of Barker & Yeates, Eight Stages of Lesson Design by Alessi, Evaluative Features, and Knowledge-based Instructional System Design by Duchastel and the Development of Multimedia Titles by Shuman. There were five stages namely: problem definition, courseware specification, event design, implementation and product review. Formative evaluation was conducted in every stage of development. Descriptive and evaluative methods were used in determining the perceptions of the respondents toward the developed courseware. There three groups of respondents: a) 15 teacher-expert evaluators; b) 15 student evaluators from Manila and c) 15 student-evaluators from South Cotabato. The data were treated using the mean and the standard deviation.
The quantitative analysis of data obtained from the final evaluation made by the teacher-expert evaluators and student evaluators showed that the CAI material on Information Technology Concepts possessed the qualities of a good multimedia courseware. The mean analysis performed on the evaluation ratings indicated that the courseware has very good characteristics in terms of content, instructional and technical qualities. Thus, the developed CAI material on Information Technology Concepts is highly recommended to be used as a supplement to enhance the teaching and learning process.

Year 2001, Salvador M. Besares made a study on the Development of a Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) Material Focused on the Area of Rectangle, Parallelogram, Triangle, Trapezoid and Circle. The main purpose of the study is to develop and evaluate an interactive Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) material focused on the area of rectangle, parallelogram, triangle, trapezoid and circle. The study sought to answer the following questions: (1) How was the CAI on area of a rectangle, parallelogram, triangle, trapezoid, and circle developed? (2) How do the respondents assess the developed CAI with respect to its: a) Content characteristics?; b) Instructional characteristics?; c) Technical characteristics?; 3) Is there any significant difference in the ratings of the content experts, (Mathematics teachers), and students respondents (two groups) with regard to its content characteristics, instructional characteristics, content and instructional qualities? There were four phases in the development of the courseware namely: Needs Analysis phase, Design phase, Development phase and the Evaluation phase. The qualitative analysis of data obtained for the responses made by the evaluators on the different aspects of the courseware showed that the material which the researcher calls as the “Buds” is a very good CAI material. The mean analysis performed on the evaluation ratings indicated that the content and instructional characteristics and the content and instructional qualities of the courseware were highly acceptable. The courseware was given an excellent rating on the technical characteristics and technical qualities data from the respondents. The Kruskal – Wallis H test performed showed that the ratings given by the three groups of evaluators are the same.
Year 2009, Angeles, Babadilla, Enriquez and Madriñan made a study about the Development and Evaluation of a Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) on Introduction to Operating System. The purpose of the study is to develop and evaluate a Computer-Assisted Instructional material in teaching operating system for third year high school students. The study sought to answer the following questions:
(1) How do evaluators assess the CAI material with its: a. Content characteristics? b. Instructional characteristics? c. Technical characteristics?
(2) Is there any significant difference in the ratings of the content expert and student evaluator with regard to its content characteristics, and instructional characteristics?
The courseware was developed through the following phases namely:
(1) Analyze learners;
(2) State objectives;
(3) Select Instructional methods, media, and materials

The participants of the study were Ten (10) third year Special Science students of Bacoor National High School; four (4) Information Technology majors who acquired at least four years study of Information Technology Course in Philippine Normal University. The findings of the research are as follows:
(1) The student evaluators gave the software a mean rating of 4.23 and 0.405 standard deviation in its content characteristic a mean rating of 4.28 and 0.580 standard deviation in its instructional characteristics. A mean rating of 4.4 and 0.50610391 standard deviation for technical characteristics. Based from the results, it indicates that the courseware is highly acceptable.
(2) The ratings given by the Information Technology experts indicate that the content and instructional characteristic of the courseware is highly acceptable. The Information Technology group gave a rating of 4.66 with standard deviation of 0.455 for its instructional characteristics. A mean rating of 4.58 with standard deviation of 0.455 for technical characteristics was also given.
(3) The computed mean and standard deviation showed that the developed courseware can be used as a supplementary material in teaching Computer subject specifically Operating System. Based on the results gathered from the computed t-test for independent sample, the two groups of evaluators; (the student evaluators and Information Technology (IT) experts there is no significant differences in the ratings of the content expert and student evaluator with regard to its content characteristics, instructional characteristics, content and instructional qualities.
Based on the findings, the researchers formulated the following conclusions:
The quantitative analyses of data based on ratings given by the evaluators’ shows that “Operating the Future: Improving Minds for the Innovative World” possesses the characteristics and or qualities of a good computer-based courseware.
Fifty percent of the evaluators would highly recommend the developed courseware to be used as a supplement material for learning and the other fifty percent would also recommend this courseware.
There was no significant difference in the mean score given by the two groups of evaluators which means that both groups agree that the software possesses the characteristics of a good Computer-Assisted Instructional (CAI) material.

On July 12, 2002, Job A. Ferrer had conducted a research, entitled “Development and Evaluation of Computer-Assisted Instruction in Ohm’s Law.” The study was designed to develop and evaluate a Computer-Assisted Instructional material in Ohm’s Law. In order to meet the objectives in teaching Physics IV and Electronics Technology II as one of the components in the teaching of Technology and Home Economics subject, the concept of Ohm’s Law was taught in Makati Science High School under the Division of City Schools in Makati. The study includes the review of related resources, selection of the appropriate authoring software, designing of the CAI material, development of the CAI material, and the evaluation of the developed Computer-Assisted Instructional material in Ohm’s Law. The researcher (Ferrer) based the design of the Computer-Assisted Instructional material from the results of the interview conducted to some teachers handling Physics and on the desired learning competencies included in the PSSLC and the BEC 2002.
The development stage was the translation of story boards and flowcharts into computer programming. The authoring tool, Authorware was used in the development of the prototype model.
Next to the trial stage was the running of the program, wherein the prototype had been field tested by a technical panel composed of content, computer experts, and students. For the evaluation stage, there were three groups of evaluators who evaluated the program according to its content characteristics, instructional characteristics and technical characteristics. The evaluators included: ten (10) Science teachers, (computer experts group), enrolled at the PNU/APC-MITE2-Batch 2002; fifteen (15) students of the Makati Science High School, and ten (10) teachers, three (3) from the Sta. Catalina National High School and five (5) from the Makati Science High School. On the basis of the findings of the study, it could be concluded that the developed CAI in Ohm’s Law was unanimously accepted according to the evaluators as an effective instructional supplement in teaching Physics. To sum it all up, CAI in Ohm’s Law has been proven to be an excellent instructional tool in teaching Physics because it possesses the three major characteristics needed for instructional success: content quality, instructional quality, and technical quality.

Zaldy T. Layugan (2002) conducted the research entitled, “Development and Evaluation of Computer-Assisted Instructional Materials on Selected Topics in Electricity.” The study aimed to develop and conduct a summative evaluation of the computer-assisted instruction (CAI) courseware that will serve as supplementary materials in teaching Electricity lessons for 4th year high school students.
The study sought to answer the following questions: a) How was the CAI courseware on selected topics on Electricity developed?; b) What were the perceptions of the respondents on the acceptability of the developed CAI material concerning its content, technical, and instructional quality. The researcher (Layugan) followed four phases in the research, namely: a) Needs Analysis; b) Design; c) Development; and d) Evaluation Phase. On the evaluation stage of the CAI material, the researcher (Layugan) adapted the evaluation form used by Avila (1998) in her study about Heat and Thermodynamics. The evaluation form used the Likert scale where each item in the evaluation form corresponds to a point varying from one to five: 1- Not Applicable (NA); 2- Strongly Disagree (SD); 3- Disagree (DA); 4- Agree (A); and 5- Strongly Agree (SA). The evaluation form was responded by a group of Science teachers and students. The evaluation manifested high acceptance concerning the content, instructional, and technical quality of the CAI material.

On March 2003, a research entitled, “Development and Evaluation of ‘Exploring Maps” as an Interactive Computer-Assisted Instructional Material was conducted by Exzur J. Peralta. The study was conducted in June 2002 that aimed to develop an interactive multimedia courseware on map reading for high school students.
The study sought to answer the following questions: 1) What are the necessary steps in developing the “Exploring Maps” as a Computer-Assisted Instructional Material? ; 2) What are the evaluations of the students, teachers, and Education Program Specialists with respect to the content, instructional, and technical qualities of the CAI material? The researcher (Peralta) used constructivism as a guide and foundation on his study. There were three phases involved in developing the CAI material. The first phase is the needs assessment; the second phase involves the definition of significant terms, and on the third phase, the presentation of the material that utilized the Macromedia Authorware 6.
Descriptive statistics was apparently used in the study that includes percentage, mean, and standard deviation. The findings (based on the evaluations of the three-group respondents) showed that the CAI material was “very good” with regards to its content, instructional, and technical qualities. Based on the overall evaluation results, Exploring Maps is highly acceptable as a supplementary teaching tool for map reading. It was also evaluated to possess a very good quality of computer-assisted instructional material. It was also noted that there “Exploring Maps” is acceptable in developing higher-order thinking skills among the users and in stimulating learner processes as revealed by the positive from the group of evaluators and other DepEd employees who have explored the CAI.

SYNTHESIS Similar to the studies cited here, the concern of this research with its determining theories and methods involved is to develop and evaluate an interactive CAI material as supplementary in learning process. The studied coursewares mentioned here were evaluated in terms of content, technical and instructional aspect.

REVIEW OF RELATED CAI

The researchers reviewed some Computer Assisted Instruction materials in different subject areas that gave them an idea on how the courseware may be designed and developed.

A CAI material developed by Job A. Ferrer entitled, Development and Evaluation of Computer-Assisted Instruction in Ohm’s Law is an interactive learning material for Physics subject. The first screen shows the main menu. The main menu gives the options as to what particular topic under Ohm’s law the user would like to engage in. The list of menu starts with the introduction followed by the six major topics about Ohm’s law with an examination after and ends with the summary. There is also a voice over of instruction for the user to follow and the user needs to click the mouse to choose a topic to study. There are two buttons below the screen that consist of the main menu button where you can select topics and the quit button if the user wants to quit or to exit program.
Every topic includes all the explanations, examples and practice activity or exercises about the lesson. Each topic ends up with a calculator which only computes a specific formula.
In the examination part of the program, it will ask the user to input their first, middle and their last name to proceed with the examination. There are four buttons below the screen which will ask the user to navigate with the program consists of the main menu, back, forward and the quit button. After the user click on the letter that corresponds to the answer, the user will now ask to click on the button check answer to confirm the answer then click on the forward button to proceed with the next item. The researcher thinks that the examination is only consist of 17 items because after item no. 17 the program malfunctions because it does not continue to the next item.

A CAI material developed by Jesus L. Huenda entitled, Fibo the Frog Mathemajess’yan is an activity based learning material for Mathematics subject. The first screen will asks for the user’s first name, middle initial and last name and the next screen will discuss about the content of the program.
This CAI consists of five sets of Math Trail Challenges. Each challenge will test the comprehension of the user about mathematics. The first set of Math Trail Challenges is a multiple choice evaluation consists of 10 items; the user needs to click on the letter that corresponds to correct answer and it is automatically checked by the program. The result of the examination will be shown on the right side of the screen. The second set of Math Trail Challenges is a drag and drop examination. The user need to read the scenario on the left side of the screen then answer the problem by dragging and dropping the correct answer on the text box. There are also other buttons that are similar to the current problem on the screen. The user will know if the answer is correct if the item drag and drop into the box stayed and if it’s wrong, the item that was drag will go back to its previous place. Lots of navigation buttons including restart, go back, recent page, menu, first page, previous page, next page, last page, and the quit button could be seen at the bottom of the screen. The third set of Math Trail Challenges is flowcharting. The user needs to follow the flow chart and enter the answer in the designated box. The correction will be shown on the right side of the screen. This set also uses the same navigation buttons similar to set two. The fourth set of Math Trail Challenges is playing Damath. There is a Trivia on the left side of the screen and the user will play the interactive damath on the left side. The fifth and the last part of Math Trail Challenges is the repetition of the first set of Math Trail Challenges. The developer repeats the first set of the challenges to test the comprehension of the users about the topics.

The researchers reviewed an interactive CAI material about Journalism which is entitled, “Campus Journalism Made Easy”. The material was developed by Danilo C. Galarion that gave them ideas on how the courseware may be designed. The first thing that caught the attention of the researchers was the encouraging audio-visual appeal of the courseware.
After the welcome page has been displayed, the home page follows which has the help button at the upper left corner of the screen. The help feature is very detailed to the extent that it states the type of menu and what to do with those menus. Aside from the Help feature, the home page also has instructions that tell the learner what to click and what contains such menus. On the right side of the screen are the menus which are the objectives and the main topics. On the upper left corner of the main topic’s screen are the instructions on what buttons to click and their functions. On the left side of the screen are the subtopics that display its contents when clicked. Some topics include movie clips that give further knowledge about the topic.
The last submenu is the quiz that is a very essential part of a CAI material because it assesses the extent of the knowledge that the learner acquired from the material. The learner clicks the answer of his choice and then the letter of his/her answer appears on the blank provided before the number. After answering, the learner could check the answer by clicking on the button at the upper right corner of the screen. The total correct and wrong answers are displayed. The correct answer is displayed at the right side next to the test item.
Two buttons were displayed at the lower portion of the screen. Those are the main menu, that lets the learner go back to the main menu after the discussion of a topic. The other one is the quit button that proceeds to the acknowledgement and then the reference page.

The researchers also reviewed the CAI material about Air Pollution which is entitled, “Understanding the Liabilities of Air Pollution” that gave them ideas on how the courseware may be designed.
The first screen displayed the title of the courseware, followed by the pictures related to air pollution. After that, the next important thing was the statement of the courseware’s objectives that cited the lessons the learners should anticipate from the material. The log-in screen is very simple when it comes to aesthetic appeal and instruction.
After the log-in screen, the welcome page is displayed, showing instructions on answering the pre-test. The existence of the pre-test and post test of the material is a feature that is very essential to be included in a CAI material. The quiz, just like any other tests, consists of four choices.

The learner may choose among the four buttons (A, B, C, D). Once a letter had been chosen, the rest of the choices could not be clicked anymore. If the answer is correct, a check mark will be displayed at the left side of the table below the choices. Otherwise, if the answer is incorrect, a cross mark will be displayed at the right side of the table. The number of correct answers is counted on the left side under the left side, while the number of incorrect answers is counted on the right side below the cross mark. Beside the four choices is the NEXT button that should be clicked after the learner’s answer had been evaluated. The next screen will display the score of the learner.
The learner should click the START button to proceed to the presentation of the lesson. The screen that presents the lesson has button that could display the definition of pollution. It has also buttons that could display the other subtopics, such as Sources of Air Pollution, Effects of Air Pollution, and Solutions to Air Pollution. Using the mouse over function, the courseware discusses the Metro Manila Air Shed, Awareness Campaigns, and Partners for Clean Air. The courseware has also features like Glossary and Help.
After the discussion of the lessons, the learner had to take the post test that is similar to the test taken earlier. The researchers reviewed a CAI material in Exploring Maps that gave them the insight on how the courseware may be designed and helped in the needs analysis phase. Exploring Maps is an interactive CAI material that was developed by Exzur J. Peralta. This was developed by Peralta in order for him to introduce the basic concepts about the earth. The main menu gives the user what particular topic he/she would like to engage. It was divided into four main topics. In order for the user to engage with the topic they are just going to click on the button that has the corresponding topic. Icons that are clickable are at the bottom right of the screen, where the user is going to click on the button and on the top of it was a picture showing the topic and the brief description of the topic that was going to be presented. There are also some clickable icons and text that is used to view some video file and presentation. There are also brief descriptions of the topics that were discussed during the viewing of the presentation or video file. On the other hand, there are also additional buttons which are the About the Author, Quit and the Exercises. The exercise includes five major categories that the user can choose. The user will just choose the category that they wanted by just clicking on the box that includes the category of the exercises.
The CAI material in Circulatory System that was developed by Evangeline Aruyal Caratao was a lecture type CAI which lets the user to navigate the CAI through clicking the different buttons that includes the different parts of the CAI. These include the Objectives, Introduction, Main Menu, Quiz, Quit, and Author. The objectives of the CAI include the things that the user should meet after navigating through the CAI. Introduction includes the preface of the main topic of the CAI material. This gives the user the background of what he/she could learn after using the CAI. Then the main menu includes four major topic of the lesson. The user can choose the topic through clicking the word or phrase that has a link for the presentation or lecture. It also includes diagrams and animation that makes the discussion become more understandable for the user. The quiz of the CAI material was a drag and drop type of quiz. There are labels that are to be dragged on the picture that is corresponding to the label. When the user got the corresponding label for the specific picture it is considered as a correct answer and when the user did not get the answer the label will just go back to its place and let you to drag the labels again to the picture. It also displays the result of the quiz that you attained. The items that were given and the corresponding correct answers and the equivalent of the score that the users attained are also displayed after getting the quiz. There are also instructions that were included in order for the user to navigate well in using the CAI material. They give instructions vocally and also they include some readable instructions for the user. The brief introduction about the author is also included and when you quit the CAI material there is an acknowledgement included after you quit the material.

The CAI material developed by Cristopher T. Frusa entitled Development and Evaluation of Computer – Assisted Instructions on Information Technology Concepts; “Your Digital future (The technologies that will change the way we work) consists of three CD’s. The first CD which is the main program discuss about the basic concepts about computer. The first screen will ask the user to enter the CD key, first name, middle initial, last name, and the password to proceed with the program, followed by the main menu which consists of 15 buttons corresponding to the 10 main topics. There are four navigation buttons in each topic including the menu, left and right arrow for the next and previous page and quit button. After each topic, there are set of exercises and chapter quiz which are corrected immediately. There are also some buttons which introduce the author of the courseware and to help the user on how to use the program. There is also a button which displays the different terminologies and its definitions related to the topic. And the last button examines the understanding of the user about the topics on the courseware. The tests consist of four types which are multiple choice, target area, text entries and tries limit and key press and time limit. In multiple choices it consists of 20 items and the user needs to click on the letter that corresponds to correct answer. Each item is corrected instantaneously by the program and the result is shown on the right bottom part of the screen. After the user has finished the 20-item test, the end result of the evaluation will be shown with its corresponded grade. The next type of test is the target area made up of five set of pictures which are needed to complete the different parts of the image using the drag and drop method. Then the text entry and tries limit test is consist of 10 items. The user needs to type the correct answer on the designated text box and automatically checked by the program. The last type of test is the key press and time limit test. It contains of 10-item multiple choice questions that needs to be answered under time limit.
The second disc of the courseware is about the video on the 3D Virtual PC Tour. This includes the tour to the system unit (CPU) if how does it work and where it is located. In order for the user to navigate the video, the user is responsible to choose the parts of the CPU that he/she wanted to know then the 3D video will be played. This would discuss the interface of each of the part of the CPU.
The third disc of the courseware is about the Interactive game about Information Technology. It was named “Who Wants to be a Millionaire”. It consists of 15 questions that are all about the topics that were discussed during the time when the user used the disc one and disc two of the courseware. This interactive game will test the user if he/she did learn from the discussion from the disc one and two of the courseware. The user will choose the answer by just clicking on the box that he/she thinks is the correct answer. There are four choices from A-D, then once you get the correct answer you get the corresponding money allotted for the question. It is up until the user had answered all the questions correctly and be the winner of the jackpot price of the game. Then if the user did not answer the question correctly it will be the end of the game. The researchers also reviewed the CAI material about Electricity which is developed by Zaldy T. Layugan that gave them ideas on how the courseware may be designed.
The material has dynamic welcome screen special effects. After the welcome screen, the learner could press any key to continue. An instruction at the bottom right lets the learner proceed to the log-in page. The log-in page asks the learner to input his/her first name, middle initial and last name. Also, has to provide a password and then confirm it.
After logging-in, pictures and animations that are examples of electricity are shown. On the right side of the screen were the options which consist of Introduction, Objectives, Main Menu, Experiment, Glossary, and Assessment. The contents could be browsed using the scrollbars. The main menu is the presentation of the lesson. When a topic has been selected, it displays subtopics that discuss the lesson. When the learner uses the mouse over function with the underlined words, the meanings of those underlined words appear. The lessons flow continuously and learner could proceed in answering the chapter quiz. In choosing the correct answer, the learner should type the letter of the chosen answer. The learner has to answer a test item within just 15 seconds. The box at the bottom indicates the number of the correct and incorrect answers. It also indicates whether the learner has passed the test or not.
The experiment was said to be under construction. The glossary provides numerous terminologies related to the topic. Lastly, the assessment consists of 20-item test that has the same format as the chapter test.

Word Processing Concepts developed by Domingo is a Computer Assisted Instruction that was developed by Domingo N. Viñas. It is a modular lesson in teaching Word Processing Concepts. The module facilitates classroom learning and allows user to develop competence and confidence in using an application to make them more productive. The Word processing application used in this material is Star Office 5.2 Text Document. The material in the module provides the user with a conceptual overview of word processing software and allows the user to learn the elements of opening an application, explore the text document window, use the menus and tool tips, learn to close the document and quit an application. Each lesson includes step-by-step procedures that allow the user to develop skills while learning more about the lesson presented. Once the user opens the icon of the application, few introductory titles appear like the title of the CAI material and the input name box. After every message box, there is a prompt whether the user wants to continue or not through the Yes and No button. After clicking the Yes button, the main menu screen appears. The main menu screen includes the title of the CAI material, MITE button, Credits button, Word 2000 button, image and name of the CAI developer, next button and exit button. The MITE button presents the researcher’s images and his contact details. The Credits button displays the acknowledgement of the author. The Word 2000 button shows the main lesson screen. After clicking the latter button the program asks for the user’s name and a welcome message appears afterwards. The menu shows Presentation, Credits, CAI Resources, Pre-test, Run module, Post-test, Exit Module, Back, Return and Next buttons. The objectives of the module are as follows:
 Start Word 2000
 Explore Word window
 Navigate menus
 Close a document
 Quit an application
After the introductory messages is a pre – test or the pre-assessment stage. There are twenty five test items and the user can automatically know one’s score and the number of mistakes accumulated. The presentation of the topics to be discussed in the module follows after. The lesson screen consists of different buttons that are as follows: Back, Exit, Next. After the presentation of the lesson the program will tell the user to click Exit. After clicking the Exit button there are four new buttons which are Run Lesson, Let Me Try, Quick Test and Select another Lesson. The Let Me Try button provides demonstrations, the Quick Test button is composed of few test items about the topic discussed and the Select another Lesson returns to the lists of topics. After completing the topics the user can now have the post-test. The format of the post-test is like the format of the pre-test. It also consists of twenty five items and the user can determine the number of correct answers and wrong answer gathered. After completing the post-test the program will guide the user on how to exit the program.

Another Computer Assisted Instruction that the researchers reviewed is the Multimedia Instructional Package on Ecology by Mr. Edgardo M. Benitez. Upon opening the program, a very wonderful opening presentation is displayed. The main menu comprises five buttons, which are the Introduction, Quiz, Menu, Objectives and Quit. The Introduction button is a gateway to the main lesson and is consist of two navigating buttons which are back and next. After clicking the Quiz button the program asks for the user’s name and a confirmation follows. The quiz is composed of twenty items and the user can instantly know whether the answer is correct or incorrect. The Menu button displays the list of different topics where the user can choose a topic to learn. The objectives button shows the objectives of the material. And lastly, the Quit button terminates the program and displays the acknowledgement but a confirmation is displayed first before the termination of the program.

SYNTHESIS
The reviewed CAI materials served as a basis for this research. The researchers kept an eye on the content, technical and instructional aspects of the CAI materials.

SYNTHESIS

This research is concerned with determining the theories, methods, and principles involved in the development of CAI material. The researchers studied 10 related CAI materials, literature, and studies that helped a lot for the foundation of the development of the CAI material.

The courseware design was based on the following:
• Theories and methodologies (ADDIE Model).
• Learning Styles – the VARK model that reflect the different types of learners (visual, aural, reading/writing, and kinesthetic.
• Principles that govern the design and development of instructional materials.
• The role of multimedia in instruction.