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Job Satisfaction and Job Performance at the Internship Level
Miles Smayling Minnesota State University, Mankato Howard Miller Minnesota State University, Mankato

Industrial psychologists and management theorists have been examining the linkage between job satisfaction and job performance for at least fifty years. The results have been, at best, tenuous. The effects of age, gender, personality and environment have been considered without yielding concrete resolution. Since an internship or similar work integrated learning experience might well be a career starting point, a study was conducted to determine what, if any, relationship exists between satisfaction and performance at this stage. Assessment of job performance for student interns is an accepted practice for work integrated learning operations. This paper examines the results of 359 internships over a period of years. Consideration was given to the gender of the intern and their supervisor and the key factors that interns and their supervisors tended to focus on in their evaluations. Gender did not seem to play a role in the students’ view of the value of various work characteristics. The effect of moderating variables were considered when examining the satisfaction-performance relationship. Although the use of such moderators did alter the results, their effect was fairly small and did not have a meaningful impact on the conclusions drawn. A clear finding emerged suggesting that job satisfaction is more highly related to job performance in situations where the intern and their supervisor are of the same gender. INTRODUCTION A recent Conference Board report (Barrington and Franco, 2010) stated that job satisfaction had reached its lowest point ever reported. The idea that so many were workers discontent would be troubling enough, but, the further concern that such sentiment might affect productivity, during an economic slowdown, is worthy of consideration. The belief that job satisfaction is tied to job performance has been advanced and examined for at least, the last seventy years. William Shakespeare wrote "To business that we love, we eagerly arise, and go to with delight." Although the linkage between these two factors is an intuitively appealing proposition, the research evidence is, at times, less persuasive. This paper utilizes a sample of job interns and examines whether performance and satisfaction are related at the earliest stage of one’s professional career. The origins of a belief in a job satisfaction-job performance connection are often traced to the Hawthorne Effect and the early Human Relations model (Roethlisberger and Dickson, 1939; Mayo, 1945). At the outset, causal relationship was posited between satisfaction and performance. In their oft cited paper, Brayfield and Crockett (1955) found that this relationship was minimal or non-existent (p.405) when they reviewed the published research. Since that time, numerous attempts were made to

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discover the presence and nature of the satisfaction-performance linkage. Later, an alternative viewpoint developed suggesting that job performance caused job satisfaction because workers were able to derive intrinsic rewards from their work (Lawler and Porter, 1967; Locke, 1970). Four studies found a significant linkage in this direction (Brown, Cron, & Leigh, 1993; Darden, Hampton, & Howell, 1989; MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Ahearne, 1998; Stumpf & Hartman, 1984). Other research (Dubinsky & Hartley, 1986; Dubinsky & Skinner, 1984; Hampton, Dubinsky, & Skinner, 1986), Birnbaum & Somers, 1993; Brown & Peterson, 1994) did not find a significant relationship. A meta-analysis study conducted by Iaffaldano & Muchinsky (1985) reviewed the research from 1955 and found a correlation between satisfaction and performance of .17 (p.963). Although some studies have used longitudinal data (Bagozzi, 1980; Sheridan & Slocum, 1975; Siegel & Bowen. 1971; Wanous, 1974) they are the exceptions. A more typical methodology is to examine the relationship in a crosssectional manner. Most recent work in this area has incorporated moderating variables when connecting performance to satisfaction. One origin of this model was Korman (1970) who argued that self esteem would positively influence the tie between performance and satisfaction. A wide range of other variables have been considered including need for achievement (Steers, 1975), cognitive ability (Varca & James-Valutis, 1993), similarity in problem-solving styles (Goldsmith,McNeilly. & Ross, 1989), perceived appropriateness of supervision (Jabri, 1992) and disposition (Hochwarter, Perrewe, Ferris, & Brymer, 1999). The papers that have included moderating variables suggest that such factors tend to influence the jobholder’s perception of a given situation and affect the satisfaction-performance relationship. One research effort, a meta-analysis by Judge, Thoresen, Bono and Patton (2001) found a correlation of .19, but argued that, if one adjusted for issues such as social contexts and behavioral tendencies, the true measure was .30. Their model is shown in Figure 1, below. FIGURE 1 JUDGE ET AL SATISFACTION—PERFORMANCE MODEL

Source: Judge, Thoresen, Bono & Patton, G. (2001)

The Judge, et al (2001) Figure 1 model represents their integration of the satisfaction – performance literature, combining the results from tests of 7 different simple models of possible satisfaction -

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performance relationships over more than 300 empirical studies. They note that stronger correlations of the two result when attitudinal measures of satisfaction are used, which involve judgment and evaluation, over more purely affective measures of satisfaction, which involve more temporary emotional surges, whether positive or negative. Net, though, they concluded that none of the 7 simple depictions of the satisfaction-performance relationships was clearly favored in the results, whether studied alone or considered with covariates and moderators. They also note, however, that research errors clouded the simple empirical relationship of satisfaction and performance, whatever causal link may exist, such that research conclusions have understated the probable true relationship between these two important work place variables. Finally, they conclude that the evidence strongly suggests that moderator variables or covariates of some kind do account for significant variation in how strongly satisfaction and performance correlate. This research was undertaken to build on the extensive review and evidence provided by Judge and his colleagues (Judge, et al, 2001). Specifically, we were interested to examine satisfaction and performance relationships among new entrants to professional management, as they test their new professional life through internship experiences. We expected that a number of variables would affect both how satisfied new professionals would be, and how well they performed. These covariates included factors like gender-match with the supervisor, degree to which the internship relates to their planned field of practice, as well as the degree to which the internship provided opportunity to use newly acquired professional skills. OVERVIEW This paper utilizes data drawn from 359 internships performed by management majors at a midwestern state university over a number of years. The sample included 181 female interns and 178 males. Students needed to have completed 90 semester credits before accepting an internship. At the conclusion of their internship, they were required to complete a survey detailing their satisfaction with the experience. The survey questions focused on the perceived adequacy of one’s supervision, the appropriateness of job assignment, usage of problem solving skills, how related the job was to one’s field of study, if one could experience a sense of responsibility and if the internship aided the transition to a “career job” environment. In addition, students were asked to rate their overall satisfaction with the internship. Employers also provided evaluations. They rated students on their ability to learn, judgment, dependability and the quality of their work. Lastly, the supervisor’s were asked to provide a global rating on job performance. RESULTS Table 1 shows the results of an OLS regression of the student’s ratings of certain moderators on overall satisfaction. Utilizing the estimated value for satisfaction allows one to explicitly adjust the satisfaction ratings for perceived level of those factors. Although these factors seem to have measurable effects on satisfaction, the consideration of supervisor and intern gender leads to more complex findings. The importance of having an adequate supervision was revealed in all internship situations. Males seemed more commonly to value the degree to which their internship related to their field of study. Females appeared more satisfied with placements where they were able to experience responsibility in their work. Table 2 exhibits the impact of a number of dimensions on the overall performance rating given supervisors to their interns. An intern’s judgment and attitude were strong determinants of a supervisor evaluation, irrespective of gender concerns. An intern’s relations with others at work only appeared to matter when the supervisor and intern were of the same gender. Female supervisors seemed to focus more on the quality of work than their male counterparts did.

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TABLE 1 OVERALL SATISFACTION AND STUDENT RATINGS OF INTERNSHIP ATTRIBUTES Female Supervisor Female Male All Intern Intern Interns .788 .880 .575 .086 .316** .121 .166 .266** .163* .239** .272** .073 .528 16.87*** .111 .072 .061 .387 8.32*** .222*** .299** .085 .567 28.28*** Female Intern -.072 .211 .176 .239* .345** .079 .641 12.45*** Male Supervisor Male All Intern Interns .558 .872* .031 .130 .195** .239*** .373*** .140* .168* .528 20.66*** .226*** Overall .709** .122* .205*** .239***

Constant Develop skills Related to field of study Adequate supervisor Responsibility Problem Solving Adjusted r2 F

*=significant at the .05 level;

**=significant at the .01 level; ***=significant at the .001 level

.130* .200*** .112 .102* .445 .505 24.60*** 52.35***

A number of researchers have examined how gender might affect job satisfaction (Hodson, 1989; Clark, 1997; Vlosky and Aguilar, 2009). No meaningful gender distinction was found in this sample. Female satisfaction averaged 4.53, while the level was 4.55 for males. Female job performance averaged 4.51 and male 4.40. None of these differences were statistically significant. A very noticeable gender effect did appear, however, when examining the relationship between pay and satisfaction directly. Table 3 reveals a pattern of a higher performance-satisfaction linkage when interns were working for supervisors of the same gender. In particular, male intern showed a statistically significant correlation between satisfaction and performance when working for a male supervisor, but not when with a female supervisor. The usage of an adjusted measure for overall satisfaction did not appear to have any substantial consequences. TABLE 2 OVERALL PERFORMANCE AND SUPERVISOR RATINGS OF INTERN ATTRIBUTES Female Supervisor Female Male All Intern Intern Interns -.355 .207 .329 .310** .360* .346*** .205* -.046 .103 .152* .101 .138* .044 .176 .096 .189* .185 .182** .175* .182 .168** .693 36.38*** .614 10.41*** .650 44.26*** Male Supervisor Female Male Intern Intern .500 .311 .063 .134 .136 .094 .223* .222*** .065 .058 .244*** .,262*** .170 .173* .454 8.46*** .614 31.00*** All Interns .374 .099 .118 .220*** .066 .253*** .171** Overall .174 .182*** .113* .200*** .089 .218*** .167***

Constant Quality of work Ability to Learn Judgment Dependability Attitude Relations with Others Adjusted r2 F

*=significant at the .05 level; **=significant at the .01 level; ***=significant at the .001 level

.577 .608 42.33*** 84.47***

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TABLE 3 INTERN AND SUPERVISOR GENDER EFFECTS ON PAY-SATISFACTION RELATIONSHIP Observed Satisfaction Level Female Male All Supervisor Supervisor Supervisors .09 -.11 .02 -.02 .06 .24* .11 .17 .08 Adjusted Satisfaction Level Female Male Supervisor Supervisor .21* -.02 .11 .06 .30** .16 All Supervisors .07 .17 .12

Female Intern Male Intern All Interns

*=significant at the .05 level; **=significant at the .01 level; ***=significant at the .001 level

CONCLUSION This study examined the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance for Management majors engaging in internship experiences. It was discovered that satisfaction was significantly related to performance in settings where the intern and their supervisor were of the same gender. Adjustments made for moderating variables had a minimal impact. REFERENCES Bagozzi, R. P. (1978). Sales force performance and satisfaction as a function of individual difference, interpersonal, and situational factors. Journal of Marketing Research, 15, 517-531. Barrington, L. & Franco, L. (2010) I Can’t Get No… Job Satisfaction, That is. Conference Board Annual Job Satisfaction Survey. Birnbaum. D. & Somers, M. J. (1993). Fitting job performance into turnover model: An examination of the job performance-turnover relationship and a path model. Journal of Management, 19, 1-11. Brayfield, A. H., & Crockett, W. H. (1955). Employee attitudes and employee performance. Psychological Bulletin, 52, 396-424. Brown, S. P., Cron, W. L., & Leigh, T. W. (1993). Do feelings of success mediate sales performancework attitude relationships? Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 21, 91-99. Brown, S. P., & Peterson, R. A. (1994). Effect of effort on sales performance and job satisfaction. Journal of Marketing, 58, 70-80. Clark, A. E. (1997). Job satisfaction and gender: Why are women so happy at work? Labour Economics, 4(4): 341-372. Darden. W. R., Hampton. R., & Howell, R. D. (1989). Career versus organizational commitment: Antecedents and consequences of retail salespeople's commitment. Journal of Retailing, 65, 80-105. Dubinsky, A. J., & Hartley, S. W. (1986). A path-analytic study of a model of salesperson performance. Journal of the Academy\ of Marketing Science, 14, 36-46.

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Dubinsky. A. J., & Skinner, S. J. (1984). Impact of job characteristics on retail salespeople's reactions to their jobs. Journal of Retailing, 60, 35-62. Goldsmith, R. E., McNeilly, K. M., & Ross, F. A. (1989). Similarity of sales representatives' and supervisors' problem-solving styles and the satisfaction-performance relationship. Psychological Reports, 64, 827-832. Hampton. R., Dubinsky, A. J., & Skinner, S. J. (1986). A model of sales supervisor leadership and retail salespeople's job-related outcomes. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 14, 33-43. Hodson, R. (1989) Gender differences in job satisfaction. The Sociological Quarterly, 30(3), 385-399. Hochwarter, W. A., Perrewe. P. L., Ferris, G. R., & Brymer, R. A. (1999). Job satisfaction and performance: The moderating effects of value attainment and affective disposition. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54, 296-313. laffaldano. M. T., & Muchinsky, P. M. (1985). Job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 97, 251-273. Jabri. M. M. (1992). Job satisfaction and job performance among R & D scientists: The moderating influence of perceived appropriateness of task allocation decisions. Australian Journal of Psychology, 44, 95-99. Judge, T., Thoresen, C., Bono, J., & Patton, G. (2001). The job satisfaction-job performance relationship: A qualitative and quantitative review. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 376-407. Korman, A. K. (1970). Toward an hypothesis of work behavior. Journal of Applied Psychology, 54, 3141. Lawler. E. E., III. & Porter, L. W. (1967). The effect of performance on job satisfaction. Industrial Relations, 7, 20-28. Locke. E. A. (1970). Job satisfaction and job performance: A theoretical analysis. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 5, 484-500. MacKenzie. S. B., Podsakoff, P. M. & Ahearne, M. (1998). Some possible antecedents of in-role and extra-role salesperson performance. Journal of Marketing, 62, 87-98. Mayo, E. (1945). The social problems of an industrial civilization. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Business School Press. Roethlisberger, F. and W. Dickson. (1939). Management and the Worker. New York: Wiley. Sheridan. J. E., & Slocum, J. W., Jr. (1975). The direction of the causal relationship between job satisfaction and work performance. Organizational Behavior and Hitman Performance, 14, 159 — 172. Siegel. J. P. & Bowen, D. (1971). Satisfaction and performance: Causal relationships and moderating effects. Journal of Vocational Behavior, I, 263-269. Steers. R. M. (1975). Effects of need for achievement on the job performance-job attitude relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 678-682.

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Stumpf. S. A., & Rabinowitz, S. (1981). Career stage as a moderator of performance with facets of job satisfaction and role perceptions. Journal of Vocational Behavior. 18. 202-218. Varca, P. E., & James-Valutis, M. (1993). The relationship of ability and satisfaction to job performance. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 42, 265-275. Vlosky, R.P. and F.X. Aguilar. 2009. “A Model of Employee Satisfaction: Gender Differences in Cooperative Extension”. Journal of Extension. April. 47(2) Article 2FEA2. Wanous, J. P. (1974). A causal-correlational analysis of the job satisfaction and performance relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology, 59.

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Copyright of Journal of Leadership, Accountability & Ethics is the property of North American Business Press Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

Copyright of Journal of Leadership, Accountability & Ethics is the property of North American Business Press Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

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...problem and as long as the necessary outcome happens that is all that matters. This is true in the quote above; cats do their job by catching mice, it doesn’t matter what type or what color the cat is. I agree to this to some extent. In certain scenarios it’s not black and white and coming up with one simple solution. Some problems have depth behind them where it’s not just a “cat catching a mice”. More specificity is needed when it comes to in-depth problems. In most case scenarios the quote “Black cat, white cat;[who cares] as long as it catches mice “ applies, but not every scenario. The quote is most evident in when anyone is given a certain task, that person then takes on the responsibility of having to accomplish that task. For example, when a carpenter gets a customer that wants new cabinets in their kitchen. The carpenter then has to complete the requests of the customer, doesn’t matter how he gets the job done, but as long as the cabinets are completed. He could get his five workers to complete the job, or he could do it himself with his two top carpenters. The task is given first and it does not matter how or who gets the task done but as long as the cabinets are complete. In the end when the customer sees the final product they will be happy either way, which is where the “[who cares] “in the quote comes into play. The cat does its job in the household by catching the mice, it doesn’t matter what type of cat. Just like building cabinets, in the end as long as the...

Words: 549 - Pages: 3

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Thomas Green Case

...Problem: In the case of “Thomas Green: power, office politics, and a career in Crisis”, it describes the dilemma of Thomas Green who works in a company called Dynamic Display. Thomas was recruited as an account executive, and then five months later, he was promoted as a Senior Market Specialist directly by the President Shannon McDonald. Thomas’s boss Frank Davis hadn’t expected to choose Green as the new senior market specialist, and he was very dissatisfied with Green’s work style and performance three months after the promotion. After being informed that Frank Davis had emailed McDonald about his concerns about Green’s performance, Green was getting really worried about his situation and not sure how to explain his perspective to McDonald. I’m going to analyze the issue for Green and suggest solutions to solve the problem. Conclusion and Recommendation: Green had strong ambition and willingness to achieve a high selling growth for the company. However, Green was so concentrated on goals without observing the surrounding situation; it caused a failure for him to adapt his work style. Plus lacking a managerial experience, Green wasn’t able to look at issues based on a structural and long term view. Thus he would decide to avoid interactions with Davis after the first criticism, rather than improving his performance and rebuilding the relationship with Davis. In addition, both roles that Green and Davis had were dependent upon collecting information; however, it seemed that...

Words: 914 - Pages: 4