Mga Piling Linya sa Tula na Ginamitan ng Tayutay
1. Animang Pantig
•Kung ano ang buhay, siyang kamatayan...
Ang hirap ko’y alam ng iyong kariktan tapatin mo lamang yaring karaingan
At bigyan ng buhay, ang pag-asang patay!
--Oksimoron
(www.tagaloglang.com)
•Siya ang berdugo
Na bahid ng dugo
Hawak ay gatilyo
Dugo’y kumukulo.
--Metapora
Berdugo ni Greg Bituin
•Palaman ko ay margarin
Kaya malinamnam ito
Para akong nasa bangin
Ng paglayang pangarap ko.
--Simile
Pandesal ni Greg Butuin
2. Waluhang Pantig
•Ang pag-ibig ko sa iyo ay lansones na malasa
Ganyan din ang pagsinta mong may lamukot na ligaya.
--Metapora
Parang Buto ng Lansones
•Ngunit ang suyuang iyan kapag naging paglililo
Parang buto ng lansones sa sinumpang paraiso!
--Simile
Parang Buto ng Lansones
•Bawat hukay, bawat libing
Ay isa lang pintong bukas
Na patungo sa lupaing
Maligaya't walang wakas.
--Sinekdoke
Bawat Hukay
(http://panitikan.hostingsiteforfree.com/criticism/mulasatradisyontungosakongregasyon.htm)
3. Labindalawahing Pantig
•May isang lupain sa dakong silangan
Na nag-aalaga ay sikat ng araw kaya napatanyag ay sa kagandahan at napabalita sa magandang asal.
--Hyperbole
(Panitikang Pambata)
•Habang nagduruyan ang buwang ninikat sa lundo ng kanyang sinutlang liwanag, isakay mo ako gabing mapamihag sa mga pakpak mong humahalimuyak.
--Apostrope
(Panitikang Pambata)
•Ang puso'y lumukso sa pagkakakita nitong bahagharing pagkaganda-ganda.
--Personipikasyon
(Panitikang Pambata)
4. Labing-animang Pantig
•Paalam na, Bayang giliw, lupang kasuyo ng araw,
Sa dagat Silanga’y Mutya, aming Langit na pumanaw,
Malugod kong sa‘yo’y hain ang amis ko’t lantang buhay,
At lalo mang maluningning, mabulaklak at malabay,
Ihahandog ko ring lubos, lumigaya ka man lamang.
--Personipikasyon
Huling Paalam ni Dr. Jose Rizal

•Bayaan mong ako’y tingnan ng lamlam ng buwang-sinag,
Bayaan mong ang liwayway ay dagliang magliwanag,
Bayaan mo ring humibik at umangil ang habagat;
At sa dipa kung dumapo’y isang libong mapanatag
Bayaan mong huni niyang pamayapa ang igawad
--Onomatpeya
Huling Paalam ni Dr. Jose Rizal
•Ngunit hindi hindi nagpagapi ang magigiting na bayani,
Bayaning gulok at panulat ang nagsilbing gamit,
Gamit na ating iningata't ipinagmalaki
Ipinagmalaki hanggang sa sila'y masawi!
--Onomatopeya
Bayang Pangako
5. Labin-waluhing Pantig
•di pantay ang hustisya kaya nga kaydami ng sumusulpot na mga katanungang sadyang naghahanap ng mga sagot di ang mayayaman lang ang dapat makadama ng hustisya kundi dapat lahat, may hustisya dapat lalo na ang masa.
--Paralepsis
SA HUSTISYA'Y MAY TUNGGALIAN DIN NG URI ni Gregorio V. Bituin Jr.
•Ngayon hawak natin ang sariling laya at sariling palad tungkulin ng lahat ay magtulong-tulong sa isang hinagap ipakita natin sa buong daigdig na tayo ay ganap na lahin dakila-- may pagkakaisa at di tulak tulak.
--Pag-aagapay
Ang bayan ko'y ito ni Jose Villa Panganiban.
•Nagising nga akong tila nangangarap na isang anino sa maputing tabing ng aming kahapong nilikha ng tao; sa pagkakawalay sa isang magulang ay waring natuto nahawi ang ulap na nagbigay silim sa kanyang talino.
--Simile/Apostrope

The Legend of Medusa and the Gorgons
The earliest known record about the myth of Medusa and the Gorgons can be found in Hesiod’s Theogony. According to this ancient author, the three sisters, Sthenno, Euryale and Medusa were the children of Phorcys and Ceto, and lived “beyond famed Oceanus at the world’s edge hard by Night”. Of the three, only Medusa is said to be mortal, whilst Sthenno and Euryale were immortal. In addition, Medusa is the most famous of the three, and the story of her demise is also mentioned in passing by Hesiod.
Although Hesiod gives an account of Medusa’s origins and the death of Medusa at the hands of Perseus, he does not say more about her. By contrast, a more comprehensive account of Perseus and Medusa can be found in Ovid’s Metamorphoses. In this work, Ovid describes Medusa as originally being a beautiful maiden. Her beauty caught the eye of Poseidon, who desired her and proceeded to ravage her in Athena’s shrine. The goddess then sought vengeance by transforming Medusa’s hair into snakes, so that anyone who gazed at her directly would be turned into stone.
In the myth of Perseus, the hero is sent by Polydectes, the king of Seriphus, on a quest to bring him the head of Medusa. This was a trick, as Polydectes desired Perseus’ mother, Danae, and wanted to get rid of her son, who is not in favour of such a relationship. Such a mission would have been equivalent to suicide for Perseus, and Polydectes did not expect him to ever return to Seriphus. Yet, Perseus was the son of Zeus, and he was aided by the gods. Perseus receives the Cap of Invisibility from Hades, a pair of winged sandals from Hermes, a reflective bronze shield from Athena, and a sword from Hephaestus. With these divine gifts, Perseus sought out Medusa and decapitated her whilst she was asleep.
Immediately after the Gorgon was beheaded, the winged horse Pegasus sprung out from her neck. In the Theogony, Hesiod also mentions that Chrysaos, who was born with a golden sword in his hand, emerged from the severed neck of Medusa. After this, Perseus returns to Seriphus, though not before going on several adventures. Although Perseus may be at the centre of these adventures, it could be argued that it is the transformative powers of Medusa’s severed head that played a pivotal role in the hero’s subsequent adventures.

Pegasus emerges from the body of Medusa. ‘The Perseus Series: The Death of Medusa I’ by Edward Burne-Jones (Wikimedia Commons)
When the blood dripped from Medusa’s head onto the plains of Libya, each drop of blood transformed into venomous serpents. The power of Medusa’s head is seen again when Perseus encounters the Titan Atlas. When Perseus asks Atlas for a place to rest for a short while, his request was refused. Knowing that he would not be able to defeat the Titan with brute force alone, he takes out Medusa’s head, and Atlas is turned into a mountain. Perseus also encounters Andromeda, the daughter of the Aethiopian king Cepheus and his wife Cassiopeia. Using Medusa’s head, Perseus succeeds in rescuing the princess, who was being sacrificed to Cetus, a sea monster sent by Poseidon to punish Cassiopeia for boasting that her daughter was more beautiful than the Nereids. Medusa’s petrifying power is also used on Phineus, Andromeda’s uncle whom she was betrothed to, Proetus, the usurper of the throne of Argos, and finally Polydectes himself. Medusa’s head is then given to Athena, who wears it on her aegis whenever she goes into battle.

Perseus Confronting Phineus with the Head of Medusa by Sebastiano Ricci (Wikimedia Commons)
Although Medusa is commonly regarded as a monster, her head is often seen as a protective amulet that would keep evil away. Thus, the image of Medusa’s head can be seen in numerous Greek and subsequent Roman artifacts such as shields, breastplates and mosaics. There are also numerous coins that bear not only the imagery of Perseus holding the head of Medusa, but also the head in its own right. Today, the most well-known image of Medusa’s head belongs perhaps to the logo of the Italian fashion company, Versace, indicating that the myths of the ancient world are still alive and with us in the modern world. *
The Life and Legend of the Aldworth Giants
In the simple, tiny church of St. Mary, Aldworth there lie the nine stone statues of what have become known as the “Aldworth Giants,” a name bestowed upon them because all are over 7 feet tall and are said to be life-sized representations of the de la Beche family members.
After Duke William of Normany crossed the English Channel and took London, his supporters followed in search of lands and wealth. The de la Beche family was among them. They received numerous properties and built two castles, one of which was in Aldworth. Though the castle no longer stands, the church houses the last of the family’s descendants.

St Mary Church in Aldworth (Wikimedia Commons)
The de la Beche family was very influential in the first half of the 14th century, and many of the family members represented in the church were knights. Sir Robert, the eldest member of the family buried here, was knighted by King Edward I, and his grandson, Sir Philip was valet to Edward II, and was also sheriff of Berkshire and Wiltshire in 1314. He and his sons took part in a rebellion against King Edward II in 1322. The opposition was defeated, however, but as luck would have it they were captured and imprisoned for five years instead of being beheaded. In 1327, Edward III, who was now king, absolved them and restored their lands and positions to them.
Sir Philip’s son, Lord Nicholas, went on to become an integral in the English empire under Edward III. He served as steward of the province of Gascony, Constable of the Tower, and custodian of Edward III’s first son until his death in 1346. While their lives were impressive, the de la Beche memorials prove to be even more so. They fill the small church, as if reminding onlookers of their greater than life accomplishments. The first family members first to be seen upon entering the church are Sir Robert de la Beche, his son Sir John, and John’s son Sir Phillip, who are under arched tracery along the north wall. Sir Phillip had six sons and a daughter: John, Philip, Nicholas, Edmond, Robert, Edward, and Joan. The nave of the church houses the effigy of Phillip’s first son, Sir John, along with Sir John’s wife, Isabella, and his younger brother, Lord Nicholas de la Beche. Lord Nicholas’s brother, Sir Philip, and their mother, Lady Joan, lie along the south aisle of the church, also under arched stone canopies. The last remaining effigy is of Lady Isabella’s son John, who died in 1840. It is at this time the effigies are believed to have been constructed, as this family line soon became extinct.
Though the stone monuments can still be seen today, they were vandalized during the Cromwell regime and consequently are badly mutilated, missing limbs and other appendages. The most extreme damage was done to Lady Isabella and Young John, who are both missing their heads. One effigy has disappeared altogether, that of John Ever Afraid.
So who, pray tell, is John Ever Afraid? Legend claims the magnificent stone memorials found in St. Mary’s Church actually belong to giants known as John Long, John Strong, John Never Afraid, and John Ever Afraid. This is speculated to be due to the immense size of the effigies. While little to nothing is said about the prior three, the legend of John Ever Afraid is quite famous. The tale claims that he sold his soul to the Devil for earthly riches. According to their bargain, the Devil could claim John’s soul upon death whether he was buried outside or inside of the church. Tricking the Devil, his body was buried within its walls, and his effigy was placed in an alcove on the outer wall of the church. So what happened to John Ever Afraid? His body is said to have been buried under the wall where the arch appears on the outside. His mystery of his missing effigy may never be solved, though there are theories as to where it ended up. One such theory is that it was moved to Saint Lawrence Church Hungerford.
A parade performed during the summertime Corn Exchange outdoor event throughout West Berkshire tells the tale of John Ever Afraid. Put on by the Irish outdoor theatre company, masked puppets take over the streets as an 18-foot giant puppet representing John Ever Afraid comes out of hiding. Confused from 600 years of sleep, he has to elude the Devil and his minions. It is a family-friendly event that celebrates the rich mystery surrounding this local legend.

* The Legend of Aegeus - The Mistake of a Son and the Death of a King
Forty-three miles south of Athens, Greece, one can find the magnificent cliffs of Cape Sounion. This is a beautiful site with breathtaking sunset views over the Aegean Sea. Today’s beautiful scenery at Sounion draws many visitors who wish to marvel in the beauty of the landscape. However, Sounion is a location that offers more than just spectacular views. This site is an important location in Greek mythology.
The cape is surrounded by the Aegean Sea, which, according to Greek mythology, was named after Aegeus after he jumped to his tragic death due to a mistaken belief that his son had died. Additionally, Sounion is an archeological site, containing the ruins of an ancient temple of Poseidon. To an uninformed traveler, the beauty of Sounion may lie solely in the amazing sights where the cape meets the sea - but the myths and legends surrounding this area add even more wonder and beauty to the landscape as one imagines the ancient events that are said to have unfolded nearby. Cape Sounion has been a site of many archeological finds. Overall, archeological explorations have uncovered artifacts that date back to 700 B.C. An original Temple of Poseidon is believed to have stood upon the cape until it was destroyed in 480 B.C., as Persian troops invaded Greece during the second Greco-Persian War. The Temple of Poseidon overlooked the sea, sitting on Cape Sounion at 60 meters (200 feet) above sea level. This is very fitting, as Poseidon was the god of the sea in classical mythology. The Temple was rectangular with columns on all four sides. A subsequent Temple was built over the remains from 444-440 B.C., and some of the columns still remain standing today. While the archeological finds at Cape Sounion are interesting and informative, many visitors are drawn to the Cape due to the tragic mythological tale which surrounds it. The myth explains the name of the sea the Cape overlooks.
According to Greek mythology, the Aegean Sea was named after mythological Greek King Aegeus after he flung himself off the cliff, to his death, upon the mistaken belief that his son had died. This ancient tragic tale involves a theme that is still used in modern story-telling today, which is that of misunderstanding and the tragic consequences that can follow. King Aegeus was the grandson of the mythical ruler of ancient Athens, Erichthonius. Aegeus was first married to Meta, and then to Chalciope, but the pairings produced no children, and he left them. As the years passed and he remained without a male heir, he sought advice from the oracle at Delphi. Her prophecy confused him: "Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief." Out of disappointment, he left to visit the wise King Pittheus of Troezen. At Troezen, King Pittheus introduced his daughter Aethra to a drunken Aegeus, and the two lay with each other. Aethra became pregnant with Aegeus’ child, who grew to be known as the hero Theseus. Before the baby was born, Aegeus left Aethra to return to Athens. Prior to leaving, he found a large, heavy rock, and placed his sandals and sword beneath it. He instructed Aethra that when he came of age, their son should retrieve the items and return to Aegeus. When he had grown, Theseus did retrieve the sword and sandals, and reunited with Aegeus in Athens. At first Aegeus didn’t recognize Theseus, but through tests he eventually realized it was his son returning to him. At the time, Aegeus had been in conflict with Crete. King Minos of Crete had a son, Androgeus, who repeatedly defeated Aegeus in contests during the Panathenaic Games. Aegeus was jealous and embarrassed, so he suggested that Androgeus go to kill the Marathonian Bull. While attempting to do so, Androgeus was killed, and King Minos was so angered that he declared war on Athens. However, he agreed to peace under one condition – sacrifice. Minos created an elaborate labyrinth, within which he imprisoned the dreadful creature known as the Minotaur. Every nine years, Athens had to send seven male and seven female youths, known as tributes, to King Minos by ship. King Minos would then place the fourteen youths into the labyrinth to be devoured by the Minotaur. This was the price Athens had to pay for peace between themselves and Crete. This continued on until the brave Theseus came alone and offered to help bring the practice to an end. One year, Theseus volunteered to go with the fourteen tributes so that he could slay the Minotaur. Aegeus was scared for his son’s life. To help ease his father’s fears, Theseus agreed that he would announce his fate by displaying white sails on his ship upon his return home. Aegeus waited on Cape Sounion, overlooking the sea, for his son’s return. When he saw Theseus’ ship approach with black sails, signifying Theseus’ death, Aegeus was devastated. He threw himself off the cliff and into the sea where he perished.Unfortunately, this was all a tragic mistake. Theseus had successfully killed the Minotaur, and left the labyrinth very much alive. But he inadvertently forgot to change the black sails to white. This misunderstanding ended Aegeus’ life. The body of water hence became known as the Aegean Sea. The mythological stories of Aegeus and Cape Sounion are retold as a tragic tale of a father who ended his own life under the mistaken belief that his son had died. As far as Greek mythology goes, the story of Aegeus and Theseus remains a classical example of a mistaken belief leading to tragic results.

A Slavic Legend of Immortality: Koschei, the Deathless
A figure from Slavic folklore, Koschei the Deathless was known for his titular characteristic: his inability to die. What is most interesting about this figure, however, is that his immortality was not foolproof. It was said that when Koschei cast the magical spell to protect and defend himself, he accidentally left room for error.
Though there are few records about his physical appearance, in legend Koschei is most often described as ugly, and he enjoyed riding naked upon his enchanted horse through the mountains of Russia.
He was also known as a shape-shifter, sometimes seen as either a monster or a human, but he preferred to kidnap his female victims in the form of a whirlwind tornado. The most important aspect of the mythical Koschei's being, however, was his absolute terror of death. This fear left him open to making mistakes, and his most fatal mistake was the imperfect spell he cast to protect himself from harm.
Koschei maintained his life and immortality through the removal of his soul. Taking it from his body, it was said he hid it in a needle, inside an egg, in a duck, in a rabbit, then locked it in an iron or crystal chest, and buried it under a green oak on an island.
Koschei the Deathless further safeguarded his soul by ensuring his animal vessels, or seals, could get away. Legend has it that if the chest was ever dug up and opened, the duck would try to flee. If the duck was killed, the rabbit would try to run.
It is only once his opponent reached the egg that Koschei's life was truly endangered. The egg contained the needle which held the heart of his power. According to myth, possession of the egg was enough to gain control of the demon. Furthermore, should the egg break, the needle within it would break as well, forcing hundreds of years of age down upon Koschei in a single instant, vanquishing the demon once and for all with the power of age.
Interestingly, the most prominent tale of Koschei the Deathless had nothing to do with the egg that is the source of his immortality and strength. Instead, it had to do with his womanizing ways. Andrew Lang's ‘The Red Fairy Book’ and Alexander Afanasyev's ‘Russian Fairy Tales’ both tell the story of Koschei the Deathless, in which the life and love of Prince Ivan Tsarevitch is the focal point instead.

The Legend of Koschei and Prince Ivan
Following the death of his parents, Ivan saw his three sisters wed to the first suitors who came across them—wizards in the form of birds. Within a year, however, Ivan became lonely without them and ventured off on his own to locate them. He finds the warrior woman Marya Morevna, and weds her along the way. Soon after, Marya chose to go to war and left Ivan in charge of the house, warning him not to set foot in a certain closet, for there was a secret she had long kept locked away there.
But humans are a curious race - when Marya left, Ivan disobeyed her request and ventured into the closet where he then met a decrepit old man locked in place with twelve chains. The old man begged Ivan for water, having been deprived food and drink for an extended period of time and—feeling empathetic for him—Ivan provided the man with a dozen barrels of water. Almost immediately, the man was fully revived and restored, the old shell withering away to reveal the young, strong, powerful, and immortal sorcerer, Koschei.
Empowered, Koschei broke free of the chains he had been bound by, declared he would kidnap his prisoner guard Marya, and vanished into thin air, his magic as fully restored as his body. Ivan at once embarked on a mission to rescue Marya, finding her and fleeing with her twice only to be overcome both times by Koschei on his much faster steed. The prince captured Koschei, but this resulted in Ivan’s death – he was diced up and thrown in a barrel into the ocean. However, Ivan cheated death, as his three beloved sisters each had married the aforementioned wizards, who located and revived Ivan.
Ivan was next instructed to retrieve a magic horse, one that could travel as fast, if not faster than Koschei, which he learned from his wife could be obtained from Baba Yaga, an old sorceress. He passed Baba Yaga’s tests by remaining alive and successfully completing the tasks she gave him over the course of three days. He then stole a horse and fled to Marya again.
It is here where discrepancies in the mythical story appear. Koschei was not killed with the use of his egg according to Andrew Lang's text, thereby implying that since Ivan did not come by it, it must have been previously destroyed. In Lang's and Afanasyev's versions, Koschei chased Ivan and Marya down unsuccessfully and was slain by either Ivan's sword or a sharp kick to the head by Ivan's steed, and the sorcerer's body was properly burned. Regardless of the telling however, Koschei the Deathless was indeed considered dead by the end of every version, with Ivan and Marya Morevna living "happily ever after" and Ivan's relationship with his sisters restored.

Norse Legend of the World Tree - Yggdrasil
In 1643 a Bishop called Brynjolf Sveinsson was given forty- five pieces of vellum containing poetry and prose from the heart of ancient Northern European indigenous culture. This collection is called The King’s Book (the Codex Regius in Latin). It is thought to have been written around 1270. Between 1270 and 1643 the manuscript was hidden from public view, presumably to protect it from being destroyed by the new religion which arose from Rome. Who the family was that protected this manuscript for over three hundred years we don’t know, and nor do we know their tradition, but we can be sure that it would have been a treacherous secret to bear safely through the medieval centuries. The Bishop did not himself keep the manuscript; instead, he offered the collection as a gift to the King of Denmark. There it remained in Copenhagen until 1971, when it was returned to Iceland Warships had to transport the manuscript across the sea, as a plane journey was seen as too risky – such was the preciousness of the papers. It is not surprising: these vellum papers represent the few written remains of our indigenous past of Northern Europe.
When we open these old scripts we find at the heart of the Norse mythology contained within a symbol as archaic as campfire: the World Tree, Yggdrasi The most satisfactory translation of the name Yggdrasil is ‘Odin’s Horse’. Ygg is another name for Odin, and drasill means ‘horse’. However, drasill also means ‘walker’, or ‘pioneer’. Some scholars would argue that the name means ‘Odinwalker’. In some parts of the manuscript, Yggdrasil and Odin seem to be one and the same.
When Odin hung, speared, for nine days on the World Tree, he uttered the words that he had ‘sacrificed himself onto himself’. This stanza gives us a description of the unity existing between the Godhead and the Tree in the myths. To emphasise this connection, we find in old English the word treow, which means both tree and truth. Etymologically, then, truth and tree grow out of the same root. Subsequently, in the Norse creation myth, man and woman originated from trees. We are all the sons and daughters of the Ash and Elm tree: the first man was called Ask, born from the Ash, and the first woman Embla, born from the Elm. Their oxygen offers us the primordial conditions for life. Ask and Embla sprouted from Yggdrasil’s acorns, and so it is that every human being springs from the fruit of Yggdrasil, then to be collected by two storks ,who bring them to their longing mothers-to-be. In Scandinavian folklore, they say that children are born through the knot holes in the trunks of pine trees, which is another version of the same myth.

Artur Lundkvist is one of Swedish literature’s greatest tree worshippers. Following a reflection on trees and forests, he writes:
‘… in every human there is a tree, and in every tree there is a human, I feel this, the tree wonders inside a human being, and the human being is caught in the tree … I serenade the forests, the forest sea is the second sea on earth, the sea in which man wanders. The forests work in silence, fulfilling nature’s mighty work; working with the winds, cleaning the air, mitigating the climate, forming soil, preserving all our essentials without wearing them out.’
The people represented Yggdrasil by planting what was called a ‘care-tree’, or ‘guardian tree’, in the centre of the homestead. It was a miniature version of Yggdrasil, and a stately landmark in the courtyard. The care-tree was a figurative expression of the interdependence of the world around us. It had a soul which followed the lives of those who grew up under its shadow and boughs. If the care-tree had witnessed many families growing up, the relationship between the tree and the family would have strengthened; this relationship was known to be private and confidential within the family line. Many such care-trees can still be seen in Scandinavia. I would argue that this is the origin of the Christmas tree. We unknowingly bring the World Tree into our home every winter solstice We also gain an understanding from the old vellum scripts that the World Tree is not a transcendental entity beyond time and space; rather, it is alive, organic, fragile and strong, and bound by the three dimensions of time: past, present and future. The fragility of Yggdrasil is always a concern to the gods. There is a dragon called ‘the Bane Biter’ who bites into its deepest roots. There are also other animals that assail the Tree: four deer feed from the branches, and their names are Dain, Dvalin, Duneyr and Duratro. Dain and Dvalin are described seeming ‘as if they are dead’ or ‘living with indifference, living in a mist’. Two animals stands on the roof of Valhalla (the abode of the Gods): the goat Heidrun and the deer Eiktyrner, and they feed from the branches too – but they give back gifts to the Tree. The goat offers mead and the deer pours waters from its antlers into the roots. They are both said to live in balance with the Tree.

The Lost City of Aztlan – Legendary Homeland of the Aztecs
Is Aztlan the ancient homeland of the great Aztec civilization, or is it just a mythical land described in legends?
The Aztec people of Mexico created one of the greatest empires of the ancient Americas. While much is known about their empire located where today’s Mexico City can be found, less is known about the very start of the Aztec culture. Many consider the missing island of Aztlan to be the ancient homeland where the Aztec people began to form as a civilization prior to their migration to the Valley of Mexico. Some believe it is a mythical land, similar to Atlantis or Camelot, which will live on through legend but will never be found in physical existence. Others believe it to be a true, physical location that will someday be identified. Searches for the land of Aztlan have spanned from Western Mexico, all the way to the deserts of Utah, in hopes of finding the legendary island. However, these searches have been fruitless, as the location – and existence – of Aztlan remain a mystery. The formation of civilization at Aztlan comes from legend. According to Nahuatl legend, there were seven tribes that once lived at Chicomoztoc – “the place of the seven caves.” These tribes represented the seven Nahua groups: Acolhua, Chalca, Mexica, Tepaneca, Tlahuica, Tlaxcalan, and Xochimilca (different sources provide variations on the names of the seven groups). The seven groups, being of similar linguistic groups, left their respective caves and settled as one group near Aztlan. According to some accounts, the seven groups’ arrival at Aztlan was preceded by the arrival of a group known as the Chichimecas, who were considered to be less civilized than the seven Nahua groups. The Mexica were the last group to travel to Aztlan, and may have been slowed down due to a lengthy drought between 1100 and 1300 AD. The word Aztlan means “the land to the north; the land from whence we, the Aztecs, came.” It is said that eventually, the people who inhabited Aztlan became known as the Aztecs, who then migrated from Aztlan to the Valley of Mexico. In some tales, Aztlan is viewed as a land of paradise for all inhabitants. In the Codex Aubin, the Aztlan was a place where the Aztecs were subject to the Azteca Chicomoztoca - the tyrannical elite. To escape the Chicomoztoca, the Aztecs fled Aztlan, led by their priest. In the legend, the god Huitzilopochtli told them they could not use the name Azteca, and they would be known as Mexica. The Aztec migration from Aztlan to Tenochtitlán is a very important piece of Aztec history. It began on May 24, 1064, which was the first Aztec solar year. Although Aztlan has never been physically identified, it has been described as an island. Rather than an island in the sea, it is an island within a lake. Scholars have made many attempts to locate Aztlan, in hopes of finding the place where the Aztecs, later known as Mexica, originated.
Some have argued that the search for Atlantis and the search for Aztlan are one and the same, as these are simply two different names for the same land. However, this has been disputed, and many scholars searching for Aztlan believe it to be a separate land from the lost city of Atlantis.
One big mystery surrounding Aztlan is exactly how far north the area would have been located. With searches extending all the way up into Utah, it is possible that the Aztecs did not originate in Mexico at all, but that their culture was formed in an area that is now the United States, prior to their migration to the Valley of Mexico. Some have argued that if this were true, descendants of the Aztecs who are in the United States today may try to assert that they are not undocumented migrants, but descendants of the Aztecs who are merely returning to their home land. Although many have searched in hopes of finding Aztlan, archaeologists do not believe that its discovery will yield much in terms of ruins or artifacts. Finding Aztlan will offer a glimpse into the history of the Aztecs and where they originated, although it is agreed that where the Aztecs originated is not nearly as important as their migration to the Valley of Mexico and the events that occurred thereafter.
There are three methodological problems that arise when trying to determine where Aztlan was located. The first is known as “stretching.” It is likely that the Aztec civilization did not migrate directly from Aztlan to the Valley of Mexico, as this would have been a very long direct journey. Instead, it is likely that they zigzagged as they traveled, making stops that would have lasted for various durations. It may be difficult to differentiate between a temporary destination, and the duration of the entire journey.
The second problem is known as “layering,” which recognizes that there are likely to have been more than one migration from North to South, and it is difficult to determine exactly which migration would be associated with Aztlan.
The third problem is known as “folding.” This problem arises from the fact that there may have been migration back and forth, from north to south, and then from south to north again. These three methodological problems intensify the difficulty in establishing whether Aztlan was a real location, where the Aztecs originated, or if it was merely a legendary place that is symbolic of the Aztecs.
To this day, the actual existence of an island known as Aztlan has not been confirmed. Many have searched for the land, in hopes of having a better understanding of where the Aztecs came from, and perhaps a better understanding of ancient Mexican history. However, like other lost cities, it is not clear whether Aztlan will ever be found. Perhaps it once was an island, which has since sunk to the bottom of the lake, or has somehow been altered or destroyed. Perhaps it is a land that does not exist in a physical sense, and was a creation of legendary tales explaining where the Aztecs originated. For now, it remains a legendary place where the Aztecs formed and became a powerful civilization before migrating to what is now known as Mexico City.

Aquae Sulis: The Epitome of Roman Syncretization with the Celts
The Roman bath system was one of the most intricate and complex of the ancient world. Composed of various rooms for mental and physical cleansing, the Roman baths were more than a source of hygiene; they were an important source of culture as well. The Aquae Sulis became one of the largest and most renowned Roman baths in Britain, and is considered today the highlight of the Roman syncretization of the Celtic tribes as well as the highlight of the Roman bath system outside the city of Rome.
Located in the modern town of Bath in Somerset, England, the Aquae Sulis rose as one of the largest and most sought out Roman baths outside the Italian peninsula. Dedicated to the goddess Sul or Sulis, the Aquae Sulis represents the blending of both the Roman religion and culture with the religion and culture of the Celts. At this site Sulis, a goddess of water, healing, and fertility, was fused with Minerva, the Roman goddess of wisdom, battle strategy, and in some accounts health as well. Prior to Minerva's arrival however, Sulis was revered by the Celts at the site of Aquae Sulis because its hot springs provided natural rejuvenating properties that convinced many Celts that this was a place of directly linked to the goddess.
Use of the hot spring appears to have begun about 10,000 years ago according to what few archaeological records have survived following the Romanization of the region. It seemed the Celts arrived around 700 BCE and believed that the spring was one of the many pathways to the Otherworld—assumed because there was no perceptible source for its heat. They began erecting shrines to their deity Sulis soon after, viewing this as a place where they could speak and communicate directly with the goddess herself. It is unknown exactly how this area was used by the Celts, as their lack of written records prevents a full understanding of the specifics of their healing practices, but there is archaeological evidence that it was not uncommon to present curse requests to the goddess here as well. However, by 43 CE the Celtic purpose of the spring became obsolete as the Romans took an interest in the area and began preparations to take possession of it for the syncretization process.
When the Romans came to modern day Bath, they saw the hot spring as a way to appropriate the Celtic people into the culture of the Empire. As it was already a popular place that was religiously beloved by the Celts, there was ample opportunity to transform it into a place that suited Roman culture. Adapting such native traditions for the advancement of the Empire was a clever tactic the Romans employed everywhere they attempted to conquer. Transforming the hot spring into a proper Roman bath complex provided the Romans with a way to take over an extremely important Celtic location without completely destroying it and causing an uprising from the locals. The most important aspect that first had to be rectified, however, was the site's dedication to the Celtic Sulis. Their method of getting around this, which would also serve to introduce the Celts to their own religious pantheon, the Romans chose one of their goddesses to merge with Sulis. And so, the goddess Sulis Minerva was born.
What is interesting is that Sulis is one of the few Celtic female goddesses to have been fully syncretized with a Roman goddess. Generally the syncretization process happens with Celtic male gods, as was the case of Lenus Mars, with the females crossing over most often as merely the wife of a Roman god. Lenus was a god of healing in the Celtic pantheon. He was merged with Mars despite the fact that the Roman god was considered a war god. In the Gallo-Roman faith, Lenus Mars became a healer of infected wounds, fighting the disease rather than a war.
Sulis is the exception to this rule, most clearly evidenced by the solid bronze head of a statue of Sulis Minerva remaining from a temple erected to her at the bathing complex. As the Celts did not depict their gods or goddesses in human form, the Romans gave Sulis the same face as Minerva, blending their attributes so one became identified with the other at Aquae Sulis. Sulis also became a goddess of wisdom for the Celts, adopting one of Minerva's primary affiliations, just as the spring itself came to adopt Roman ideals by its expansive healing nature.
Taking what was already provided, the Romans expanded the hot spring into a full-functioning bath facility. Within it, there was a system of pools that succeeded the atrium, a changing and exercise room, that were each called the frigidarium, tepidarium, and caldarium. As their names suggest, the frigdarium was a cold water pool, the tepidarium warm, and the caldarium hot. By passing through each bathing area in this particular order, the bather received a full and thorough cleansing, soothing for both the body and the mind. Following the last room, it was customary to have a swimming pool for recreational purposes or a palaestra for further exercise, and in such a large location as the Aquae Sulis, this was able to be implemented. Thus, not only did the Romans appropriate the spring but they were able to expand its purpose, stretching its healing space much further than the Celts had previously done and thereby further integrating the Celts into Roman culture.
Just one of many ways the Romans assimilated the Celts into their society, the Aquae Sulis stands as the most poignant monument of this unification. Combining both the Celtic site of healing with the Roman standard of physical and mental cleansing, the Romans were able to achieve a relatively smooth integration of ideals and gods. Instead of a complete loss of culture, the Celtic goddess Sulis continued to thrive in this community, preserving the religion of the natives and preventing the Celts from being completely overrun by the Romans.

Unraveling the Nature and Identity of the Green Man
An enigma spanning thousands of years, the Green Man is a symbol of mysterious origin and history. Permeating various religious faiths and cultures, the Green Man has survived countless transformations and cultural diversities, enduring in the same relative physical form to this day. Although specifics about his beginnings and his worship are not fully known, due in large part to how far back and to what initial cultures he can be traced to, it is a testament to the widespread reach of his character that he is still remembered and worshipped to this day.
The Green Man is most highly believed to have begun as a pre-Christian entity, a spirit of nature personified as a man. His earliest images have been dated long before the coming of the Christian religion, depictions dating back before the days of the Roman Empire. However, it is with the coming of the empire that his images are noted as spanning religions, as he has been found both within the empire and at its borders, and then similar versions in other far reaching cultures such as India. Despite the range in locations of artifacts of the Green Man, he is most often associated with the society of the Celts, sequestered particularly in today's Britain and France, because of the high number of images found in these regions and the stylized way in which he has been portrayed.
The Green Man is almost frequently depicted as a man's face, usually ranging from middle aged to elderly, appearing out of the wild of forest trappings. His face is always encompassed by leaves, vines, and flowers, seeming to be literally born from the natural world. However, the slight variations on his images come from the exact way in which the natural world explodes around him. It is common for the Green Man to merely be surrounded by the greenery, hence the name ‘The Green Man’, but there have been archaeological finds of images in which the leaves and vines emanate from his mouth, ears, and other facial orifices, as well as depictions of his face made up completely of nature—facial lines carefully crafted as vines with his skin the very leaves themselves.
Because of these depictions, the Green Man is believed to have been intended as a symbol of growth and rebirth, the eternal seasonal cycle of the coming of spring and the life of Man. This association stems from the pre-Christian notion that Man was born from nature, as evidenced by various mythological accounts of the way in which the world began, and the idea that Man is directly tied to the fate of nature. It is the natural changing of seasons that presents the passage of time that ages Man, thus by depicting the Green Man in such a way that overwhelmingly illustrates Man's relationship with nature highlights the idea to worshippers that one cannot survive without the other. This union with nature and mutual reliance upon one another is evidenced historically and archaeologically through Man's cultivation and development of the natural world, and the fruits nature thereby provided. Man was predominately reliant on nature until recent centuries, so the Green Man as an expression of this close of a relationship also seems likely and a fairly powerful message.
Along with rebirth and reliance, there is one more powerful affiliation the images of the Green Man undoubtedly indicate. With the cycles of the year comes the end of the year; with the cycles of life comes the end of life; and with the excessive use of nature comes the eventual, end of nature. The Green Man's other important, powerful affiliation, then, is that of death and of endings. A fair amount of images of the Green Man have been found on graves, his face an empty skull rather than flourishing man, once again made out of or exploding with greenery. Though there is no physical face, archaeologists and art historians have expressed widespread belief that this is another mask of the Green Man, linked—as stated above—by the logical cycle of Man. What makes the Green Man green, after all, is the signs of nature that espouse from him—whether it is coming out of his face or designing his face. Thereby these skull and cross-bone depictions can logically be linked to this pre-Christian entity.
The symbol of the Green Man can be summarized in the three R's—rebirth, reliance, and ruin. Archaeological records link the Green Man to these three notions most evidently because of the three most important moments of time they represent, whether it is the life and death of nature, man, or the two affecting one another. It should be understood that much of what is known about the Green Man is speculation, as mythological records are not utilized as hard evidence but rather as examples of the belief system of pre-existing cultures; nevertheless, these speculations are highly likely.

The Legendary Origins of Merlin the Magician
Most people today have heard of Merlin the Magician, as his name has been popularized over the centuries and his story has been dramatized in numerous novels, films, and television programs. The powerful wizard is depicted with many magical powers, including the power of shapeshifting and is well-known in mythology as a tutor and mentor to the legendary King Arthur, ultimately guiding him towards becoming the king of Camelot. While these general tales are well-known, Merlin’s initial appearances were only somewhat linked to Arthur. It took many decades of adaptations before Merlin became the wizard of Arthurian legend he is known as today. It is common belief that Merlin was created as a figure for Arthurian legend. While Merlin the Wizard was a very prominent character in the stories of Camelot, that is not where he originated. Writer Geoffrey of Monmouth is credited with creating Merlin in his 1136 AD work, Historia Regum Britanniae – The History of Kings of Britain. While a large portion of Historia Regum Britanniae is a historical account of the former kings of Britain, Merlin was included as a fictional character (although it is likely that Geoffrey intended for readers to believe he was a figure extracted from long-lost ancient texts). Merlin was paradoxical, as he was both the son of the devil and the servant of God.
Merlin was created as a combination of several historical and legendary figures. Geoffrey combined stories of North Brythonic prophet and madman, Myrddin Wyllt, and Romano-British war leader, Ambrosius Aurelianus, to create Merlin Ambrosius. Ambrosius was a figure in Nennius' Historia Brittonum. In Historia Brittonum, British king Vortigern wished to erect a tower, but each time he tried it would collapse before completion. He was told that to prevent this, he would have to first sprinkle the ground beneath the tower with the blood of a child who was born without a father. Ambrosius was thought to have been born without a father, so he was brought before Vortigern. Ambrosius explains to Vortigern that the tower could not be supported upon the foundation because two battling dragons lived beneath, representing the Saxons and the Britons. Ambrosius convinced Vortigern that the tower will only stand with Ambrosius as a leader, and Vortigern gave Ambrosius the tower, which is also the kingdom. Geoffrey retells this story with Merlin as the child born without a father, although he retains the character of Ambrosius.
In Geoffrey’s version of the story, he includes a long section containing Merlin’s prophecies, along with two other stories, which led to the inclusion of Merlin into Arthurian legend. These include the tale of Merlin creating Stonehenge as the burial location for Ambrosius, and the story of Uther Pendragon sneaking into Tintagel where he father Arthur with Igraine, his enemy’s wife. This was the extent of Geoffrey’s tales of Merlin. Geoffrey does not include any stories of Merlin acting as a tutor to Arthur, which is how Merlin is most well-known today. Geoffery’s character of Merlin quickly became popular, particularly in Wales, and from there the tales were adapted, eventually leading to Merlin’s role as Arthur’s tutor.
Many years after Geoffrey’s Historia Regum Britanniae, Robert de Boron composed a poem called Merlin. Boron’s Merlin has the same origins as Geoffrey’s creation, but Boron places special emphasis on Merlin’s shapeshifting powers, connection to the Holy Grail, and his jokester personality. Boron also introduces Blaise, Merlin’s master. Boron’s poem was eventually re-written in prose as Estoire de Merlin, which also places much focus upon Merlin’s shapeshifting. Over the years, Merlin was interspersed through the tales of Arthurian legend. Some writings placed much focus upon Merlin as Arthur’s mentor, while others did not mention Merlin at all. In some tales Merlin was viewed as an evil figure who did no good in his life, while in others he was viewed favorably as Arthur’s teacher and mentor.Eventually, from the various tales emerged Merlin’s downfall, at the hands of Niviane (Vivien), the king of Northumberland’s daughter. Arthur convinces Niviane to stay in his castle, under Merlin’s encouragement. Merlin falls in love with Niviane. However, Niviane fears Merlin will use his magical powers to take advantage of her. She swears that she will never fall in love with him, unless he teaches her all of the magic he knows. Merlin agrees. Merlin and Niviane depart to return to Northumberland, when they are called back to assist King Arthur. As they are returning, they stop to stay in a stone chamber, where two lovers once died and were buried together. When Merlin falls asleep, Niviane places him under a spell, and traps him within the stone tomb, where he dies. Merlin had never realized that his desire for Niviane, and his willingness to teach her his magical ways, would eventually lead to his untimely death.
From Merlin’s inception through the writings of Geoffrey, the wizard appeared in many subsequent tales, stories, and poems. Today, Merlin is most well-known for being the wizard who tutored and taught the young Arthur, before he grew to become the King of Camelot. It was under Merlin’s counsel that Arthur became the king that he was. While this legend continues on today, it is interesting to see the many variations of Merlin, from an evil wizard, to a shapeshifter, to one who met his downfall from teaching his powers to the woman he loved. This powerful and versatile character caught the attention of many people centuries ago, and continues to play a prominent role in today’s storytelling.

203 | “When I have White, I win because I am white;
When I have Black, I win because I am Bogolyubov”
(Bogolyubov) | 204 | “Every Pawn is a potential Queen”
(James Mason) | 205 | “Chess is in its essence a game, in its form an art, and in its execution a science”
(Baron Tassilo) | 206 | “No price is too great for the scalp of the enemy King”
(Koblentz) | 207 | “In life, as in Chess, ones own Pawns block ones way. A mans very wealth, ease, leisure, children, books, which should help him to win, more often checkmate him”
(Charles Buxton) | 208 | “Chess is a part of culture and if a culture is declining then Chess too will decline”
(Mikhail Botvinnik) | 209 | “A good sacrifice is one that is not necessarily sound but leaves your opponent dazed and confused”
(Rudolph Spielmann) | 210 | “Chess, like any creative activity, can exist only through the combined efforts of those who have creative talent, and those who have the ability to organize their creative work”
(Mikhail Botvinnik) | 211 | “One bad move nullifies forty good ones
(Horowitz) | 212 | “Place the contents of the Chess box in a hat, shake them up vigorously, pour them on the board from a height of two feet, and you get the style of Steinitz”
(H. E. Bird) |