Mangroves are ever green forests between land and sea, found essentially in the intertidal zone and occupying large tracts along the shallow coasts, estuaries and in the deltas where they are influenced by tides, widely differing conditions of saline and rainfall regimes. The coastline of
Pakistan is 1,050 km long and 40-50 km wide shared by the provinces of Sindh (350 km) and Balochistan (700 km). In the Sindh province, mangroves are found in the Indus Delta which occupies approximately 600,000 ha extending from Korangi Creek in the north to Sir Creek in the South. Indus Delta comprises 17 major creeks, numerous minor creeks and extensive mudflats and constitutes 97% of total mangrove forests found in Pakistan.
Mangroves of Indus delta are unique in being the largest arid climate mangroves in the world. The survival of these forests is largely associated with perennial freshwater supplies from the River Indus, which flows through the delta before reaching the Arabian Sea. An area of 344,845 ha of the Indus delta has been declared as protected forests and is under the control of Sindh Forest Department.

The Indus Delta is believed to have had as many as eight mangrove species in the past. However at present, only four species have been left. Nearly 95% of the mangroves located in the Indus Delta comprise the species Avicennia marina. Very small patches of Ceriops tagal and Aegiceras corniculatum are found near the mouth of the Indus at Keti Bunder. Rizophora mucronata has been introduced in the Indus delta through replanting work. In Baluchistan province, the mangroves occur at three sites, Miani Hor, Kalmat Khor and Gwatar bay. Total area under mangrove cover in all three sites has been estimated to be 7,340 ha. This area is equal to 3% of total mangroves found in Pakistan. Miani Hor is the only area in Pakistan where three species of mangrove Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal occur naturally.
MANGROVE ECOLOGY:
Mangrove forests consist of diverse, salt-tolerant tree and other plant species, ranging from small shrubs to tall trees tens of metres high. The mangrove biome, or mangal, is a distinct saline woodland or shrubland habitat characterized by depositional coastal environments, where fine sediments (often with high organic content) collect in areas protected from high-energy wave action. Mangroves dominate three-quarters of tropical coastlines. The saline conditions tolerated by various mangrove species range from brackish water, through pure seawater (30 to 40 ppt(parts per thousand)), to water concentrated by evaporation to over twice the salinity of ocean seawater (up to 90 ppt). An increase in mangroves has been suggested for climate change mitigation. These forests are found between 32 degrees north and 38 degrees south of the equator, in sheltered, inter-tidal areas that receive a high annual rainfall.

The most extensive area of mangroves is found in Asia, followed by Africa and South America. According to the FAO, the total mangrove area is around 150,000 km2. Four countries (Indonesia, Brazil, Nigeria, and Australia) account for about 41% percent of all mangroves.

Although a wide variety of plant species are found in mangrove forests, only some 54 species belonging to 16 families are recognized as "true mangroves" - species which are rarely found outside mangrove habitats.
Mangrove trees have various adaptations that allow them to live in saline, tidal areas. Their dense root systems give support in the soft, water-logged sediment. In most species, the roots protrude above the soil to absorb oxygen from the air, as the sediment is oxygen-poor.
In addition, the trees either actively exclude salt when they take up seawater through their roots, or else excrete the salt from their leaves, roots, or branches. Most mangrove species also have special adaptations for reproduction, including viviparity where seed germination begins on the tree itself.
MANGROVE ECOSYSTEM:
Mangrove forests play a central role in transferring organic matter and energy from the land to marine ecosystems. This matter and energy comes from detritus from fallen leaves and branches, and forms the base of important marine food chains.

Bacteria break down the detritus, releasing useful nutrients into the water that can then be used by marine animals. These same bacteria give mangroves their "rotten egg" smell - as the sediment is oxygen-poor, only bacteria that use sulphur for energy can survive.
The dense root systems form a home for fish, crabs, shrimps, and molluscs. They also serve as nurseries for juvenile fish. Many coral reef fish, for example, spawn in mangrove forests. The young fish stay in the forest, where there is plenty of food and they can shelter from predators, until they are old enough to move to the reef.
In addition, mangrove forests are nesting and migratory sites for hundreds of bird species, as well as home to a wide variety of reptile, amphibian, and mammal species. For example, the Sunderban mangroves of India and Bangladesh - the largest mangrove forest on Earth - are home to Bengal tigers, spotted deer, saltwater crocodiles, fishing cats, and various dolphin species.
MANGROVES IMPORTANCE:
Like coral reefs, mangrove forests are extremely productive ecosystems that provide numerous good and services both to the marine environment and people. Mangrove forests support a large number of fish specie which in turn support a number of birds and snakes. Migratory birds during winter season also drop by for some meal. Depletion of mangrove forest, which is estimated around 6% annually, is likely to destroy not only the fish and bird species, who call it their home; it is likely to eliminate coastal communities who depend on fishing to survive. For all fish living here survives on these mangroves.
According to a recent report, these goods and services are conservatively estimated to be worth US$186 million each year. They include: * Fisheries: Mangrove forests are home to a large variety of fish, crab, shrimp, and mollusk species. These fisheries form an essential source of food for thousands of coastal communities around the world. The forests also serve as nurseries for many fish species, including coral reef fish. A study on the Mesoamerican reef, for example, showed that there are as many as 25 times more fish of some species on reefs close to mangrove areas than in areas where mangroves have been cut down. This makes mangrove forests vitally important to coral reef and commercial fisheries as well.

* Timber and plant products: Mangrove wood is resistant to rot and insects, making it extremely valuable. Many coastal and indigenous communities rely on this wood for construction material as well as for fuel. These communities also collect medicinal plants from mangrove ecosystems and use mangrove leaves as animal fodder. Recently, the forests have also been commercially harvested for pulp, wood chip, and charcoal production.

* Coastal protection: The dense root systems of mangrove forests trap sediments flowing down rivers and off the land. This helps stabilizes the coastline and prevents erosion from waves and storms. In areas where mangroves have been cleared, coastal damage from hurricanes and typhoons is much more severe. By filtering out sediments, the forests also protect coral reefs and seagrass meadows from being smothered in sediment.

* Tourism: Given the diversity of life inhabiting mangrove systems, and their proximity in many cases to other tourist attractions such as coral reefs and sandy beaches, it is perhaps surprising that only a few countries have started to tap into the tourism potential of their mangrove forests. Places as diverse as Bonaire and offer snorkelling expeditions in and around mangroves to witness a marvellous variety of baby fish, jellyfish, and urchins against a magical background of interwoven roots delving deep into the sandy substrate. Great potential exists elsewhere for revenue generation in this manner, which values the mangroves intact and as they stand.
ROLE OF MANGROVE FOREST:
The mangroves are very important ecosystem both economically and ecologically. Although mangroves play protective and productive roles but their protective role is more effective than productive. Some of the roles/functions of mangroves are as under:
• As pool of diversity they support diverse forms of plants and animal life.
• Provide food, shelter and breeding ground to prawns, shrimp, several fin fish, crabs and other marine life.
• Reduce wave action and help stabilize coastlines.
• Assimilate sewage water wastes and heavy metals from industrial plants.
• Protect seaports from cyclones.
• Reduce the intensity of cyclones.
• Provide livelihood to local population living along the coastline.
• Source of wood for heating and cooking and fodder for live stock.
• Provide shelter to migratory birds during winter.
• Serve as scientific laboratory/material for research
In the coastal region there is a general scarcity of sweet water. All the creeks are full of sea water and are subjected to tidal action. The main source of sweet water is the River Indus which has been changing its course frequently within historical times. The Indus and its main distributaries, flow about 120 miles southeast of Karachi to join the sea. Before the construction of dams higher up in the Indus, sweet water used to reach the tail ends of these streams during low tides almost all the year round. At present, sweet water reaches the tail ends only during the flood season when the local people store it in shallow pools for human and cattle consumption. After the flood season is over, sea water comes up in these streams and main distribution of Indus and for the rest of the year; these streams are full of sea water. The existing mangrove vegetation depends for its water supply from sea. It has adopted itself to the high salt contents of sea water so much so that every part of tree is saltish in taste.
MAJOR THREATS TO MANGROVE FORESTS
Mangrove forests are one of the world’s most threatened tropical ecosystems
More than 35% of the world’s mangroves are already gone. The figure is as high as 50% in countries such as India, the Philippines, and Vietnam, while in the Americas they are being cleared at a rate faster than tropical rainforests.

Threats to mangrove forests and their habitats include: * Clearing: Mangrove forests have often been seen as unproductive and smelly, and so cleared to make room for agricultural land, human settlements and infrastructure (such as harbours), and industrial areas. More recently, clearing for tourist developments, shrimp aquaculture, and salt farms has also taken place. This clearing is a major factor behind mangrove loss around the word.

* Overharvesting: Mangrove trees are used for firewood, construction wood, wood chip and pulp production, charcoal production, and animal fodder. While harvesting has taken place for centuries, in some parts of the world it is no longer sustainable, threatening the future of the forests.

* River changes: Dams and irrigation reduce the amount of water reaching mangrove forests, changing the salinity level of water in the forest. If salinity becomes too high, the mangroves cannot survive. Freshwater diversions can also lead to mangroves drying out. In addition, increased erosion due to land deforestation can massively increase the amount of sediment in rivers. This can overcome the mangrove forest’s filtering ability, leading to the forest being smothered.

* Overfishing: The global overfishing crisis facing the world’s oceans has effects far beyond the directly overfished population. The ecological balance of food chains and mangrove fish communities can also be altered.

* Destruction of coral reefs: Coral reefs provide the first barrier against currents and strong waves. When they are destroyed, the stronger-than-normal waves and currents reaching the coast can undermine the fine sediment in which the mangroves grow. This can prevent seedlings from taking root and wash away nutrients essential for mangrove ecosystems.

* Pollution: Fertilizers, pesticides, and other toxic man-made chemicals carried by river systems from sources upstream can kill animals living in mangrove forests, while oil pollution can smother mangrove roots and suffocate the trees. * Climate change: Mangrove forests require stable sea levels for long-term survival. They are therefore extremely sensitive to current rising sea levels caused by global warming and climate change.
LOSS OF MANGROVES FORESTS IN PAKISTAN
There has been considerable qualitative and quantitative loss of mangrove forest in Pakistan over the last 50 years. Previous various authors and agencies in their published and unpublished literature have identified external and internal factors, responsible for mangrove degradation. A significant reduction in the river water supply and increased marine water pollution in the Indus Delta from industries as well as over harvesting of mangroves by the local communities, sedimentation, and coastal erosion are generally considered to be the proximate causes of this loss. Another threat is emerging in the form of over harvesting of fish resources, largely provoked by increased pressure for exports with little or no consideration for the existing environmental laws and regulations. These threats have exposed this complex ecosystem to severe environmental and social stresses in the form of loss of habitat and biodiversity, decline in fish productivity and social problems for coastal communities.
A. External Factors
Mangrove ecosystem is under serious stress/threat due to a variety of external factors which are beyond the control/influence of people and authorities using the mangrove ecosystem. The five main external change factors are:
a. Inadequate and Irregular Inflows of Fresh Water and Silt Load from Indus
The Indus delta mangrove ecosystem is primarily dependent upon silt-laden, fresh water discharges from the River Indus which is the only source for the above supplies. Most important cause of degradation of Indus delta mangrove ecosystem is reduction in the quantum of fresh water discharge from Indus due to diversion of water for agriculture, hydro-electricity, and other uses in the upper reaches. Estimated total water available from the Indus catchments is 150 MAF (181 billion m3). Over the period of past sixty years the quantity of sweet water flow has been reduce to about 35 MAF (43 billion m3) which mainly occur during 3 months. The total silt load is estimated as 400 million tons/year and the actual quantities discharged are estimated at 100 m/tons/year. The data of discharges below Kotri barrage over the years from 1940-41 to 2000-01 shows that the total annual discharge below Kotri has been very variable but, indicates a gradually decreasing trend.
The average flows released below Kotri has been reduced to 34.8 MAF of which 20 MAF actually reach the mangroves. Bulk of these flows is released below Kotri in July-September period. Any flow during other times of the year does not reach the mangroves but is lost due to evaporation and infiltration etc. This reduction in quantity of fresh water flows into the delta has been due to changes in landuse, expansion of agriculture, intensive cropping, power generation, industrial growth and increase in population. The situation has been further aggravated by low/no rainfall particularly in Indus catchments during the recent years which has created extreme water shortage in the River Indus. Indus River experienced extreme shortage ever in the history during the year 2000-01 as the flow down stream Kotri was recorded almost nil (0.75 MAF only). This state of reduction in inflow of freshwater have exposed this complex ecosystem to several environmental and social stresses in the form of loss of habitat and biodiversity, decline in fish productivity and social problems for coastal communities.
Annual average net water availability during the period 1922-2003 on 4 out of 5 years is estimated to be 116 MAF. Present annual water commitments add up to 146.9 MAF. That leaves a deficit of 30.9 MAF. This has created a huge water shortage problem in the lower Indus basin, resulting in significant impacts.
Reduction in the flow of fresh water to the Indus Delta over the last 50 years has created two problems. First, the salinity of the sea water has increased to 50 ppt, which is detrimental to mangrove growth. Second, the flow of alluvium–the fine gained nutrient-rich soil brought by the rivers during its course through the fertile plains has declined from 400 million to 100 million tons per year thus, preventing transport and uniform dispersal of suspended sediments over mangrove areas.
As a result, the surviving Indus Delta mangroves are sparse and stunted. The above discussion clearly shows that as a result of freshwater scarcity over time, mangrove cover has been reduced both qualitatively and quantitatively. In addition, the survival of A. marina in the Delta, which has a higher tolerance for salinity, and the gradual extinction of other species that are less resistant to higher salinity levels indicate the increased levels of salinity in the Indus Delta. The loss of five mangrove species from the Indus Delta during the last 60 years, stunted growth of mangroves provides sufficient evidence to show that reductions in freshwater supplies in future may further reduce the genetic diversity of mangroves in the area. Such changes will have significant effects on the biodiversity of the mangrove ecosystem. Fish resources may be depleted in the process. It is quite evident that, unless appropriate policy measures are taken to increase water-use efficiency, population growth and increased demand for irrigation water will continue creating shortages in the Indus Delta. Adequate supplies of fresh water and silt to the Delta region are critical for the health of mangroves and the region’s biodiversity. Any reduction will restrict the mangroves in performing their vital role as primary producers in the ecosystem.
b. Sea Water Intrusion
The continuous reduction in fresh water inflow below Kotri barrage is resulting in salt water intrusion changes in the geomorphology of the delta and nutrient balance of the ecosystem. It is estimated that the sea water intrusion has taken place up to 67 km resulting in not only damaging terrestrial ecosystem in deltaic region but also affecting adversely the agricultural fields and other habitats.
c. Gradual Increase in Sea Level
Geophysical factors affecting the mangrove ecosystem include existing problems and the threat of global warming. The general phenomenon of sea level rise is attributed to global warming. It is reported that over the last 100 years the sea level near Karachi has been rising at a rate of 1.1 mm. per year and this may increase with global warning. Pakistan has been included in the list of ten countries most vulnerable to the impacts of rising sea levels. It has been estimated that a land loss of about 1,700 km2 in the Indus Delta due to sea encroachment over the last half century. Sea-level rise may cause stronger wave action, higher tides, and greater probability of surges, all of which may cause coastal erosion and depletion of mangroves, aggravating current patterns of physical damage. This serious threat to mangrove ecosystem is harmful if coupled with reduce silt deposition. It is estimated that mangroves with significant discharge from the land can maintain themselves by accumulating deposited silt with sea level rise as high as 2.5 mm/year.
d. Inflow of Pollutants
Pollution of the marine environment is another proximate cause of biodiversity loss in the coastal areas of Pakistan. The loss of mangrove species during the last 60 years, besides being consistent with the reduced supply of fresh water to the Delta, is also consistent with the increased volume of untreated wastewater discharges from industries and the city of Karachi and its vicinity.
More than half of the industrial units and over 70% of the country’s international trade are based in Karachi. It is reported that in about 25 years the number of industries has increased from 10,000 to about 30,000. With improved infrastructure, Karachi has been rapidly transformed into one of the largest cities in the world. Rapid urbanization is accompanied by weak urban planning has resulted in generation of domestic and industrial effluents without emphasis on safe or environmentally friendly approaches to its disposal. Over time, pollution has affected the coastal areas of the Indus Delta, causing stunted growth of mangroves and biodiversity loss in the marine ecosystem. An increased supply of untreated industrial effluent has pose a constant threat to coastal biodiversity.
Effluents from tanneries, including lead and mercury, are among the most harmful to marine life. It is estimated that about 37,000 tons of industrial waste is being dumped yearly in coastal environment of Karachi whereas, 20,000 tons of oil finds its way to beaches, harbors of Karachi and fishing grounds annually. Further, municipal sewers generate about 110 mil. gallons per day (MGD). In addition, land clearance for the construction of new sea ports, extension of existing sea ports, and establishment of industrial units near the coast has also contributed to the depletion of mangrove cover, particularly in the northern part of the Delta.
e. Meandering and Erosion of Creeks
The meandering of small creeks and channels is also one of the causes of natural death of Mangroves stands. This natural process causes a change in the mangrove habitat because, some areas are cut-off from regular flood waters, while others receive additional soil deposits, resulting in high lying areas. The erosion of creek banks destroys woody vegetation on these banks. This phenomenon is particularly evident along creeks near the sea where tidal movements are fastest.
B. Internal Factors
Apart from external factors described above there are several factors resulting from action of the people and authorities using/controlling the mangrove ecosystem resources. The important internal factors are: browsing by camels and grazing by cattle on the mudflats, fodder harvesting, wood harvesting and effluents from Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD).
a. Over Harvesting
Over harvesting mangroves and fish by coastal communities is another cause of mangrove cover degradation. It is, however, difficult to determine the extent of damage due to use by local communities. Mangrove forests have remained a source of fuel, timber, and fodder for coastal communities in almost all estuaries. As a consequence of increased population and poor physical infrastructure, demand for mangrove wood for fuel increased at the local level. Lack of alternate fuel wood aggravated the problem. Alternatives, such as kerosene oil or natural gas, are either not available or too expensive for the local communities. Although Timer (A. marina) wood is not good/desirable fuel wood compared to Rhizophora species due to lower calorific value and tendency to smoke, it is still used extensively by local people for domestic use. It is rarely sold outside the coastal areas. The use of mangroves fuelwood is directly related to the population of the people living in the coastal zone. The diagnostic survey of Indus delta shows that 25% of households depend on mangrove wood for cooking & heating purpose. The use of mangroves as fuelwood has been reduced in Port Qasim areas due to provision of alternate source of fuel mainly due to establishment of industrial units. But in the rest of the mangrove areas the Timer fuelwood is still in use and the mangroves in those areas are under tremendous pressure. Each family uses 173 kg. of mangrove wood per month giving a total annual consumption of 18,000 tons.
b. Browsing by Camels and Grazing by Cattle on the Mudflats
Browsing by camel and grazing by cattle is a unique use of Indus delta Mangrove ecosystem. It is estimated that a total of 16,000 camels and 3,200 cattle are using the ecosystems resources and consume about 19.5 m kg of grasses and 67 million kg of leaves. These activities take place most of the year by herds owned by villagers living inside, fringes of the inter-tidal zone and also herds from further inland during the monsoon season. Camel browsing in the mangrove forest is extremely harmful to the growth and regeneration of mangroves. However, the impact of camels is limited to certain pockets in the dense forest of the Indus Delta, and the associated threats to mangroves have tended to be insignificant given a decline in the camel population in coastal areas. The decline in the camel population has been caused by both a reduction in camel exports to the Middle East and an increase in the relative profitability of cattle and buffalo over camels.
c. Fodder Harvesting
The leaves of the predominant mangrove species i.e. Avicennia marina (Timer) are liked fodder for animals. These are regularly collected by the villagers residing in and around the coastal mangroves for feeding their cattle. This activity puts considerable pressure on the existing mangrove stands resulting in overgrazing, browsing and lopping. The mangroves are populated with cattle, goats, sheep, camels and cows beyond their capacity to produce fodder to feed them.
d. Disposal of Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) Effluents
In the recent past Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) has been constructed with the primary aim to reclaim the agricultural lands by reducing the water table thereby reducing the salinity. LBOD was designed to address the problem of water logging and salinity by providing a comprehensive system of surface and sub-surface drainage through a network of lateral and spinal drains to transport excess salts and drainage effluents to the coastal zone near the Indian border. The substantial quantities of saline drainage effluents with a salinity as high as 30 mS/cm and more are being discharged into the delta. These quantities of saline water and salt load per year when added to the coastline creeks increase the salinity of the area which is detrimental to marine life, mangroves and coastal communities.
e. Progressive Decrease of Mangrove Vegetation
A major portion of mangrove forests was surveyed in early 1960s by the Sindh Forest Department (SFD) and the mangrove forest area was estimated at 344,846 ha. This survey of the mangrove forests was, however, limited to two compact blocks of land transferred to the SFD in 1958. A second survey for the entire mangrove forest area of the Indus delta was made by the Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission (SUPARCO) in 1979 with the use of Landsat MSS imagery of December, 1973, December 1976 and December 1978 and are estimated at 0.60 mil. ha. A third survey has been made by SFD for the area under its control in 1985 using the Landsat data and ground survey. The area of 64,400 ha transferred by the SFD to the Port Qasim Authority for Muhammad Bin Qasim Port in 1973 has been excluded.
The latest survey has been made by thee consultants with the interpretation from March 1990 Landsat imagery and ground check.
III. CHANGE ANALYSIS USING SATELLITE IMAGERY
The distribution of mangroves according to satellite imagery reveals that there is a large decrease in dense mangrove cover in the south-eastern part of study area, but an increase in the central part. This distribution of mangroves is greatly influenced by the amount of surface run off and alluvium deposited at the mouth of river by seasonal floods. Sparse areas are mostly muddy substrate and no inundated channels or creeks. These areas support thin, relatively sparse monospecific stands of Avicennia The loss of mangrove species over the last 50 years is highly consistent with the reduction of fresh water and silt supplies to the Indus Delta.
The survival of salt-tolerant Avicennia marina in the Delta provides evidence of higher levels of salinity in and around the mangrove forests. Recent Landsat picture of mangrove cover in the Delta also suggests quantitative and qualitative decline of mangroves over the last two decades. Although the Water Accord of 1990 guarantees a minimum of 10 MAF of water annually for the Delta, the high public subsidies to irrigation water for agriculture upstream provide negative incentives for the conservation of water resources. In the event of any significant water shortage, the Delta is likely to receive a smaller quantity. If the mangroves are to be conserved effectively, a larger water supply has to be assured. This would require improved water-use efficiency in the upstream areas.
IV. ACTION PLANS FOR MANGROVE SUSTAINABILITY IN PAKISTAN
It is strongly recommended that the following action plans be taken up by the Pakistani’s government to ensure the sustainability of her mangroves in the Indus Delta:
The operationalization of an airborne hyperspectral remote sensing technique is implemented in order to map, identify and monitor individual species behavior due to high salinity, extent of degradation and new planting results through artificial planting in blank potential mudflats. Development of a DSS-GIS database for Indus delta Mangroves is maintained for proper management and monitoring development activities. The economic and environmental importance of mangroves is recognized in the national policies and priorities.
Environmental Impact Assessments should be carried out by EPAs on a regular basis and published officially to strengthen the mandated efforts to increase public awareness about environment and promotion of research. The efficiency of water use at the system and farm levels in order to minimize increases in diversions upstream and to ensure an adequate supply of fresh water to the Delta is enhanced. Programs for education and awareness of fishing and other communities and their participation in management of mangrove forests are initiated.
Allternate sources of fuelwood and fodder are developed in the coastal region.
For a pragmatic solution to the increased water pollution in the marine environment, discharge of industrial and domestic effluents harmful to the mangrove ecosystem be strictly monitored by EPA, Sindh and other agencies. A process of stakeholder dialogue needs to be initiated to effectively address the causes of biodiversity loss and provide an open forum for discussion of the role and constraints of the various stakeholders. Such dialogue would play a role both in information dissemination and consensus-building. In-depth scientific studies on the fresh water requirements of mangroves in terms of quantity and distribution and the “willingness to pay” for alternate sources of fuel for household consumption on the part of coastal communities be carried out.

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2. Ansari T.A., 1993. Feasibility study for Rehabilitation of Indus Delta Mangrove Forests. Government of Sindh, Forest Department, Karachi Forestry Sector Master Plan, 1992.A comprehensive report on Sindh. Asian Development Bank and UNDP Prog. Pakistan
3. IUCN, 1991.Possible Effects of the Indus Water Accord on the Indus Delta Ecosystem. Korangi Ecosystem Proj. Issues Paper No.1
4. Mirza, M.I., 1983.Mangrove of Pakistan, PARC, Islamabad, p 63
5. Qureshi, M.T. 1993. Rehabilitation and Management of Mangrove Forests of Pakistan.
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7. http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/coasts/mangroves/mangrove_threats/
8. http://www.demotix.com/news/212870/mangroves-declining-fast-pakistan#media-212483
9. http://paknewspoint.blogspot.com/2011/11/mangroves-in-pakistan-tahir-qureshi.html