...Modigliani and Miller approach to capital theory, devised in 1950s advocates capital structure irrelevancy theory. This suggests that the valuation of a firm is irrelevant to the capital structure of a company. Whether a firm is highly leveraged or has lower debt component, it has no bearing on its market value. Rather, the market value of a firm is dependent on the operating profits of the company. Capital structure of a company is the way a company finances its assets. A company can finance its operations by either debt or equity or different combinations of these two sources. Capital structure of a company can have majority of debt component or majority of equity, only one of the 2 components or an equal mix of both debt and equity. Each approach has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. There are various capital structure theories, trying to establish a relationship between the financial leverage of a company (the proportion of debt in the company's capital structure) with its market value. One such approach is the Modigliani and Miller Approach. This approach was devised by Modigliani and Miller during 1950s. The fundamentals of Modigliani and Miller Approach resemble to that of Net Operating Income Approach. Modigliani and Miller advocates capital structure irrelevancy theory. This suggests that the valuation of a firm is irrelevant to the capital structure of a company. Whether a firm is highly leveraged or has lower debt component in the financing mix, it has...
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...Modigliani and Miller proposition one (Modigliani & Miller 1958) assume that the composition of the firm's capital Structure is unimportant on the market value of all firms' securities, and consequently the firm's performance and shareholders' value. “The market value of any firm is independent of its capital structure and is given by capitalizing its expected return at the rate appropriate to its class. “This model depends on two keys, arbitrage and homemade alternative (borrowing on personal account). Arbitrage is the process that ensures that two firms differing on laying their capital structure must have the same performance. At the same time the homemade alternative describes that an investor holding an equity stake in a levered firm can sell his stake, raise a personal loan equal to the share that he held in the levered firm, spend the proceeds in a firm that is not levered and increase his income without additional cost. They assume that the shares of the firms within a given class both have the same expected return and the same probability distribution of expected return, and therefore can be considered perfect substitutes for each other. Modigliani and Miller proposition two This proposition is derived from the first one and it concerns he performance of a Common stock in companies whose capital structure contains some debt. The expected rate of return of a stock of any company belonging to a class is a linear function of the firm's leverage. “The expected...
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...The cost of capital, corporation finance and the theory of investment Modigliani & Miller – 1958 Introduction In a world of certainty investment decision should be in line with either profit maximization or market value maximization. - According to profit maximization, a physical asset is worth acquiring if it increases the net profit of the owners of the firm. But net profit increases only if the expected rate of return on the asset exceeds the rate of interest - According to market value maximization an asset is worth acquiring if it increases the value of the owners equity i.e. if it adds more to the market value of the firm then the costs of its acquisition. At a micro – economic level a world of certainty has little descriptive value. A risk factor should be taken into account when pricing capital. Profit maximization and market value maximization seemed to have equivalent implications in a world of certainty, however in a world of uncertainty this equivalence vanishes. - Under uncertainty the profit outcome has become a random variable and as such its maximization no longer has operational meaning. - Market value maximization provides a workable theory of investment in a world of uncertainty. Under this approach any investment project and its financing plan must only pass the following test: Will the project, as financed, raise the market value of the firm’s shares? If so, is it worth undertaking; if not, its return is less ten the...
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...Case #33 California Pizza Kitchen Synopsis and Objectives This case examines the question of financial leverage at California Pizza Kitchen (CPK) in July 2007. With a highly profitable business and an aversion to debt, CPK management is considering a debt-financed stock buyback program. The case is intended to provide an introduction to the Modigliani-Miller capital structure irrelevance propositions and the concept of debt tax shields. With the background of a pizza company, the case provides an engaging context to discuss the “pizza graphs” that are commonly used in corporate finance curriculum to illustrate the wealth effects of capital structure decisions. Objectives: * Introduce the Modigliani-Miller intuition of capital structure irrelevance; * Establish how the cost of equity is affected by capital structure decisions by defining financial risk and introducing the levered-beta capital asset pricing model (CAPM) equation; * Discuss interest tax deductibility and the valuation tax shields; * Explore the importance of debt capacity in a growing business. Suggested Questions 1. In what ways can Susan Collyns facilitate the success of CPK? 2. Using the scenarios in case Exhibit 9, what role does leverage play in affecting the return on equity (ROE) for CPK? What about the cost of capital? In assessing the effect of leverage on the cost of capital, you may assume that a firm’s CAPM beta can be modeled in the following manner:...
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...Lecture 13: Capital Structure Theory Exercises Question 1 Levered Inc. and Unlevered Inc. are identical in every respect except for capital structure. Both companies expect to earn $150 million in perpetuity, and both distribute all of their earnings as dividends. Levered’s perpetual debt has a market value of $300 million and the required return on its debt is 7%. Levered’s stock sells for $100 per share, and there are 5 million shares outstanding. Unlevered has 8 million shares outstanding worth $90 each. Unlevered has no debt. These firms operate in the Modigliani-Miller world with no taxes. How can you take advantage of this scenario? Question 2 Consider the problem of estimating the cost of equity for Crab Inc., a non-listed chain of restaurants specializing in crab meals. Crab has a debt-to-equity ratio of 2 and pays an interest rate of 5% on its debt. Crab’s operations are highly similar to those of the publicly traded Lobster Inc. and Shrimp Inc., which specialize in lobster meals and shrimp meals, respectively. Assume that none of these companies pays taxes. The risk free rate is 2% and the expected return on the market is 10%. Lobster has a debt-to equity ratio of 1, an equity beta of 2, and a cost of debt of 3.6%. Shrimp has a debt-to-equity ratio of 1.5, an equity beta of 3, and a cost of debt of 4.4%. a. Are the debts of Crab, Lobster, and Shrimp risk free? What does this imply for their debt betas? b. Estimate Crab’s cost of equity. Be careful to do it using...
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...------------------------------------------------- Modigliani–Miller theorem From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Modigliani–Miller theorem (of Franco Modigliani, Merton Miller) forms the basis for modern thinking on capital structure. The basic theorem states that, under a certain market price process (the classical random walk), in the absence of taxes, bankruptcy costs, agency costs, and asymmetric information, and in an efficient market, the value of a firm is unaffected by how that firm is financed.[1] It does not matter if the firm's capital is raised by issuing stock or selling debt. It does not matter what the firm's dividend policy is. Therefore, the Modigliani–Miller theorem is also often called the capital structure irrelevance principle. Modigliani was awarded the 1985 Nobel Prize in Economics for this and other contributions. Miller was a professor at the University of Chicago when he was awarded the 1990 Nobel Prize in Economics, along with Harry Markowitz and William Sharpe, for their "work in the theory of financial economics," with Miller specifically cited for "fundamental contributions to the theory of corporate finance." Contents [hide] * 1 Historical background * 1.1 Without taxes * 1.2 With taxes * 2 Notes * 3 References * 4 External links | ------------------------------------------------- Historical background Miller and Modigliani derived the theorem and wrote their groundbreaking article when they were both professors...
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... 1. Assumptions of the Modigliani-Miller theory in a world without taxes: 1) Individuals can borrow at the same interest rate at which the firm borrows. Since investors can purchase securities on margin, an individual’s effective interest rate is probably no higher than that for a firm. Therefore, this assumption is reasonable when applying MM’s theory to the real world. If a firm were able to borrow at a rate lower than individuals, the firm’s value would increase through corporate leverage. As MM Proposition I states, this is not the case in a world with no taxes. 2) There are no taxes. In the real world, firms do pay taxes. In the presence of corporate taxes, the value of a firm is positively related to its debt level. Since interest payments are deductible, increasing debt reduces taxes and raises the value of the firm. 3) There are no costs of financial distress. In the real world, costs of financial distress can be substantial. Since stockholders eventually bear these costs, there are incentives for a firm to lower the amount of debt in its capital structure. This topic will be discussed in more detail in later chapters. 2. False. A reduction in leverage will decrease both the risk of the stock and its expected return. Modigliani and Miller state that, in the absence of taxes, these two effects exactly cancel each other out and leave the price of the stock and the overall value of the firm unchanged. 3. False. Modigliani-Miller Proposition II (No Taxes)...
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...The Capital Structure of Nicci’s Pizza Palace September 13, 2011 The Capital Structure of Nicci’s Pizza Palace A company is funded by debt, equity, or retained earnings. The mixture of debt and equity is the company’s capital structure. There are four factors that influence capital structure; business risk, tax position, financial flexibility, managers, growth rate, and market conditions. Management’s decisions concerning capital structure should be geared toward maximizing the intrinsic value of the company. This value is the present value of its expected future free cash flows (FCF) discounted at its weighted average cost of capital (WACC). Business risk is the basic risk of the company's operations (EBIT), excluding debt. It raises the question how well can a company’s operating income be predicted? There are several unknown variables that can assist in answering this question. The product for example, has a cost associated with its’ creation. Then there is the uncertainty of how much to charge for it, demand, operating leverage, etc. The general rule is: the greater the business risk, the lower the optimal debt ratio. Operating leverage is the use of fixed costs rather than variable costs. It is a measure of whether a company is getting value for its costs. It “can be a very powerful thing. With a cost structure geared toward a high proportion of fixed costs and few variables in the mix, strong sales almost automatically translate into higher profit growth. Companies...
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...CALIFORNIA PIZZA KITCHEN Teaching Note Synopsis and Objectives This case examines the question of financial leverage at California Pizza Kitchen (CPK) in July 2007. With a highly profitable business and an aversion to debt, CPK management is considering a debt-financed stock buyback program. The case is intended to provide an introduction to the Modigliani-Miller capital structure irrelevance propositions and the concept of debt tax shields. With the background of a pizza company, the case provides an engaging context to discuss the “pizza graphs” that are commonly used in corporate finance curriculum to illustrate the wealth effects of capital structure decisions. The case serves to motivate the following teaching objectives: • Introduce the Modigliani-Miller intuition of capital structure irrelevance; • Establish how the cost of equity is affected by capital structure decisions by defining financial risk and introducing the levered-beta capital asset pricing model (CAPM) equation; • Discuss interest tax deductibility and the valuation tax shields; • Explore the importance of debt capacity in a growing business. Suggestion for Advance Assignment to Students Students may consider the following study questions: 1. In what ways can Susan Collyns facilitate the success of CPK? 2. Using the scenarios in case Exhibit 9, what role does leverage play in affecting the return on equity (ROE) for CPK? What about the cost of...
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...Traditional views on capital structure point to the existence of an optimal capital structure. Critique the analysis of the traditional views on capital structure in light of the competing views offered by Modigliani and Miller along with their assumptions. Capital structure refers to the way a corporation finances its assets through some combination of equity, debt, or hybrid securities. Stewart C. Myers argues that there is “no magic” in leverage and there is nothing supporting a presumption that more debt is better. He adds that debt maybe better than equity in some cases, worse in others or it may be no better and no worse. Thus, all financing choices are equally good. A firm's capital structure is then the composition or 'structure' of its liabilities. For example, a firm that sells $20bn dollars in equity and $80bn in debt is said to be 20% equity financed and 80% debt financed. The firm's ratio of debt to total financing, 80% in this example is referred to as the firm's leverage. There are many views on capital structure including the traditional views as well as the competing views offered by Modigliani and Miller. Traditional views on capital structure point to the existence of an optimal capital structure. An optimal capital structure is simply a mix of debt and equity which maximizes the value of the firm or minimizes the cost of capital. According to the traditional views on capital structure, changes in capital structure benefit the stockholders if and only...
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...firm’s cash flows is called . . . a. financial risk b. business risk c. financial leverage d. none of the above ANS: B DIF: E REF: 12.2 The Modigliani & Miller Capital Structure Irrelevance Propositions 2. Which of the following is considered an indirect cost of bankruptcy? a. document printing expenses b. professional fees paid to lawyers c. loss of key employees d. none of the above ANS: C DIF: E REF: 12.4 The Agency Cost/Tax Shield Trade-Off Model of Corporate Leverage 3. Which of the following is considered a direct cost of bankruptcy? a. diversion of management’s time b. constrained capital investment spending c. lost sales d. none of the above ANS: D DIF: E REF: 12.4 The Agency Cost/Tax Shield Trade-Off Model of Corporate Leverage 4. A situation where shareholders refuse financing a “good” investment, because they think that only the bondholders will benefit will lead to . . . a. asset substitution b. underinvestment c. overinvestment d. none of the above ANS: B DIF: E REF: 12.4 The Agency Cost/Tax Shield Trade-Off Model of Corporate Leverage 5. The proposition that the market value of the firm is independent of its capital structure is called . . . a. M&M proposition I b. M&M proposition II c. the capital asset pricing model d. none of the above ANS: A DIF: E REF: 12.2 The Modigliani & Miller Capital Structure Irrelevance Propositions NARRBEGIN: Bavarian Brew Bavarian...
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...FIN – 516 – WEEK 2 HOMEWORK ANSWER KEY - REVISED PROBLEM BASED ON CHAPTER 15 – WACC & THE HAMADA FORMULA Bickley’s Unlevered Beta: bu = b / (1+(1-T) ( D/S) = 1.3/( 1+(1-.40)(30/70) = 1.3 / (1+(.60) (.4286)) = 1.03 Bickley’s New Levered Beta: bL = bu X (1+(1-.40) ( 15/85) = 1.03 X (1 + (.60)(0.1765) = 1.14 Bickley’s WACC with the 30/70 Capital Structure: Cost of Equity: ke = 3.5% +(1.3 X 7.5) = 13.25% WACC = [7.5% X (1 - .40) X 30%] + [13.25% X 70%] = 1.35% + 9.28% = 10.63% Bickley’s WACC with the 15/85 Capital Structure: Cost of Equity: ke = 3.5% + (1.14 X 7.5) = 12.05% WACC = [7.0% X (1-.40) X 15%] + [12.05% X 85%] = 0.63 + 10.24 = 10.87% PROBLEM BASED ON CHAPTER 26 – MODIGLIANI & MILLER EXTENSION MODELS WITH GROWTH ASSUMPTIONS Unlevered Value Vu = $2.0 Million (1 + 6.5%) / (11.5% - 6.5%) = $42.6 Million Levered Value VL = $42.6 Million + [.08 X .35 X $8.0 Million / 11.5% - 6.5%] VL = $42.6 Million + [224,000 / .05] = $47.08 Million Therefore, Equity is : S = $47.08 Million – $8.0 Million = $39.08 Million Expected Return by Levered Shareholder (Without Taxes) rsL = 0.115 + (0.115 - .08) X $8 /$ 39.08 = 12.22% With M & M with Taxes VL = Vu + (T X D) = $42.6 + (.35 X $8.0) = $45.4 Million Value of Equity: S = $45.4 – $8.0 = $37.4 Million rsL = 0.115 + (.115 - .08) (1-.35) (8 / 37.4) = 0.115 + 0.005 =...
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...In 1958, Franco Modigliani and Merton Miller revolutionized the whole area of corporate finance with their article “The cost of capital, corporate finance and the theory of investment”. Before Modigliani’s and Miller’s article, literature on the topic mainly focused on descriptions of methods and institutions. Theoretical analysis was very rare (Pagano 2008). Under the assumption of perfect capital markets, the Modigliani-Miller Proposition I states that “the average cost of capital to any firm is completely independent of its capital structure and is equal the capitalization rate of a pure equity stream of its class” (Modigliani, Miller 1958). In Proposition II, Modigliani and Miller argue that “that the expected yield of a share of stock is equal to the appropriate capitalization rate for a pure equity stream in the class, plus a premium related to financial risk equal to the debt-equity ratio times the spread between” the capitalization rate and the return on debt. The most important implication of this theory is that if there is an optimal capital structure for a firm, this has to be the result of market imperfections. The Modigliani-Miller Theorem has thus become a starting point for further research and a benchmark for testing new theories on capital structure, that incorporate the impact of different market imperfections. The following text will focus on two of these theories, the static trade-off theory and the pecking order theory. The first part will contain a description...
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...WACC begins to rise. At this debt ratio, the value of Microsoft will be maximized. Our results indicate the optimal debt ratio for Microsoft is 37.5 percent. Introduction One of the most difficult concepts for finance students to learn and for faculty to teach is how a firm determines its optimal capital structure. While most corporate finance textbooks stress the importance of maximizing the value of the firm by minimizing its opportunity cost of capital, how a firm can actually achieve the appropriate debt–to–capital ratio is often a mystery. Brigham and Ehrhardt (2008) in Financial Management: Theory and Practice outline a framework that can be used by financial practitioners to determine a firm’s optimal capital structure. Modigliani and Miller (1958 and 1963) provide the basis for the trade-off theory which is how firms can conceptually determine their optimal capital structure. What is lacking in these expositions, however, is a systematic demonstration of the process through which an actual corporation might apply these concepts. This paper provides such a demonstration. According to the trade-off theory of financial leverage, a firm’s weighted average cost of capital (WACC)...
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...financing decision the manager is concerned with determining the best financing mix or capital structure for his firm. Capital structure could have two effects. First, firms of the same risk class could possibly have higher cost of capital with higher leverage. Second, capital structure may affect the valuation of the firm, with more leveraged firms, being riskier, being valued lower than less leveraged firms. If we consider that the manager of a firm has the shareholders' wealth maximisation as his objective, then capital structure is an important decision, for it could lead to an optimal financing mix which maximises the market price per share of the firm. Capital structure has been a major issue in financial economics ever since Modigliani and Miller (henceforth referred to as MM) showed in 1958 that given frictionless markets, homogeneous expectations, etc., the capital structure decision of the firm is irrelevant. This conclusion depends entirely on the assumptions made. By relaxing the assumptions and analysing their effects, theory seeks to determine whether an optimal capital structure exists or not, and if so what could possibly be its determinants. If capital structure is not irrelevant, then there is also another thing to consider: the interaction between financing and investment. But in order to try to distinguish the effects of various determinants on capital structure, it is assumed in this paper that the investment decision is held constant. II. TRADITIONAL VIEW...
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