Biometrics is a tool used to identify and reliably confirm an individual’s identity on the basis of physiological or behavioral characteristics (or a combination of both), which are unique for a specific human being (Future of Identity in the Information Society [FIDIS], 2009). Such characteristics are facial image, fingerprints, hand geometry,thestructureoftheretinaoriris,DNA,gait,heartpulse,voice,andothers. Biometric recognition offers many advantages over the traditional personal identi- fication number or password and token-based (e.g., ID cards) approaches. Because a biometric is tightly linked to an individual and it is difficult to duplicate a biometric trait, it can prevent identity theft and rule out the use of several identities by a single individual. It is also more convenient than passwords or personal identification number (PIN) codes because the characteristics cannot be forgotten and are always at hand (Dass & Jain, 2007). For these reasons, biometric systems are being used by governments and private companies in very diverse settings: social security entitle- ment, border control, health systems, banking, election management, insurance, and commerce. The use of biometric characteristics for the identification of people and things is not new. Archaeological evidence from China has established that fingerprinting was a common method since at least the Qin dynasty, around the third century BC. Tablets have been discovered where impressions of fingerprints are displayed alongside corresponding names of individuals. Fingerprinting was used to
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Review of Policy Research, Volume 29, Number 1 (2012) © 2012 by The Policy Studies Organization. All rights reserved. determine eligibility for civil service examinations and in mercantile transactions (McCarthy, 2012). Since the early 1900s, biometric features have been used system- atically for identifying special groups such as prisoners, workers, political refugees, and others (Jain, Bolle, & Pankanti, 1996). In the 20th century, fingerprinting established itself as a major tool in forensic and criminal investigations. With population growth and increasing mobility, personal identification—association of an identity with a specific individual—became a pressing issue as new threats emerged: illegal immigration, international crime, terrorism, identity theft, and fraud. After the events of September 11, 2001, biometric passports and residence permitswithfacialimagingandfingerprints,scanningprograms,andbodyscanners have been introduced in airports to combat terrorism. At the same time, there is growing awareness that even these measures do not protect us against malintents. “We live in a globalized world of increasingly desperate and dangerous people whom we can no longer trust on the basis of their identification documents which mayhavebeencompromised”(Dass&Jain,2007).Today’sinterestinbiometricshas clearly been augmented by the desire of governing bodies to monitor and manage malintents and abnormal behavior in order to prevent terrorism and criminal attacks.