1 – Introduction to Computer Concepts
History of Computer * Often referred to the different generations of computing devices. * The circuitry is smaller and more advanced than previous generation. * First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes * Often enormous, very expensive, use a great deal of electricity and generate a lot of heat. * E.g., UNIVAC, ENIAC * Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors * Computers are smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable. * Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits * Miniaturized Transistors were placed on silicon chips called semiconductors. * Increased speed and efficiency. * Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors * Thousands of Integrated Circuits (IC) were onto a silicon chip. * Computers are more powerful and linked to networks. * Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence * Uses parallel processing, quantum computation and nano-technology. * Respond to natural language input and capable of learning and self-organization.
Computer Literacy * Knowledge and understanding of computers and their uses.
Computer
* An electronic device that transform input into output.
Information Processing Cycle * Is a series of Input, Process, Output and Storage.
Components of a Computer * Input, Process, Output, Storage and Communication
Computer Systems * It has data inputs, processes that transform data into output that is required.
Basic Computer Units (Refer Figure 1.1) * Input – Data flowing from the outside environment into the computer system. E.g., keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner, barcode readers, voice input, hard disk or floppy disk. * Central Processing Unit (CPU) – all data processing of computer from input to output. * Control Unit - Exercise control over all other components. * Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) - Carry out arithmetic and logic processing. * Registers - Special and high speed storage used by Control Unit (CU) and Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU). * Memory - Storage for data and program currently processed and output data. * Output Unit – Display Information. * Secondary Unit - Non-volatile, permanent storage for future use.
Input Devices * Keyboard - Enter text, number and special characters. * Mouse - Handheld to controls the movement of a cursor on a screen. * Tracker Ball – Upside down mouse with the ball protruding from the top. * Joystick - Handheld vertical level mounted on a base. * Pointing Stick – Pressure sensitive pointing stick in between keys of keyboard. * Scanner - Convert drawing or text into computer recognizable form. * Touch Screen - A computer display screen that is also an input device. * Electronic Light Pen - Looks like a real pen with a light source at its tip. * Graphics/Digitizing Tablet – Allow users to move cursor, edit diagrams or recognize written words. * Other input devices are Microphone (voice input), Webcam (PC video camera) and Biometric input.
Output Devices * Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) - Vacuum tube consists of three electron guns (red, green and blue) to produce images. * Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) - Contains a layer of liquid crystal which are polarised to produce images. * Plasma Monitors - A layer of plasma gas between two glass plates. * Televisions (TVs) – Requires a converter to connect to a computer. * Printers * Impact printers - Physically hit the ribbon to transfer ink. * Non-impact printer - Does not physically touch the paper to transfer ink. * Non-Impact * Inkjet - Sprays ink onto paper. * Laserjet - Base on photocopier technology. * Thermal - Pushing electrically heated pins against heat-sensitive paper. * Plotters - Sophisticated printers to produce high quality drawings. * Impact Printers - Dot-matrix, line band, chain, drum printers. * Other output devices - Data Projector, Interactive Whiteboard and Force-Feedback Game Controller. * Hard copy - Display information on a permanent medium, such as paper or film. * Soft copy - Display a temporary image on a screen.
Magnetic Tapes * Used as backup medium. * Challenged by cheaper, high capacity and more robust CD-Rs. * Five basic types - Reel-to-Reel Tape, Cartridge Tapes (Quarter-Inch Cartridge Tape Drives – QIC, Digital Audio Tape Drives – DAT, 8 mm Tape Cartridge, Digital Linear Tapes - DLT).
Magnetic Disks * Storage medium that utilizes magnetic patterns to represent information. * E.g., Hard Disk, Universal Serial Bus (USB) * Hard Disk Drive - Sealed units with one or more disks of aluminum / glass / ceramic coated with magnetisable film. * Universal Serial Bus (USB) - New devices can be used without setting ups and can be a source of power to peripherals.

2 – Binary Number System
Number Bases * Each number system has a base which indicates number of symbols used. * E.g., * Decimal/Denary (Base 10) - Ten symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9). * Binary (Base 2) – 0, 1 * Octal (Base 8) – 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. * Hexadecimal (Base 16) – 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F.
Convert to Decimal / Denary (Base 10) * Hexadecimal * E.g., 2FA616 = (2 x 163) + (F x 162) + (A x 161) + (6 x 160) = (2 x 4096) + (15 x 256) + (10 x 16) + (6 x 1) = 8192 + 3840 + 160 + 6 = 12,19810 * Octal * E.g., 30568 = (3 x 83) + (0 x 82) + (5 x 81) + (6 x 80) = (3 x 512) + (0 x 64) + (5 x 8) + (6 x 1) = 1536 + 0 + 40 + 6 = 158210 * Binary * E.g., 11101012 = (1 x 27) + (1 x 26) + (1 x 25) + (0 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20) = (1 x 128) + (1 x 64) + (1 x 32) + (0 x 16) + (1 x 8) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 1) = 128 + 64 + 32 + 0 + 8 + 0 + 1 = 20410 * E.g., 101.0112 = (1 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20) + (0 x 2-1) + (1 x 2-2) + (1 x 2-3) = (1 x 4) + (0 x 2) + (1 x 1) + (0 x 0.5) + (1 x 0.25) + (1 x 0.125) = 4 + 0 + 1 + 0 + 0.25 + 0.125 = 5.37510
Convert from Decimal / Denary (Base 10) * Binary * E.g., 11710 = 2 | 117 | Reminder | 2 | 58 | 1 | 2 | 29 | 0 | 2 | 14 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 1 | | 1 | 1 | * Therefore answer = 11101012 * Octal * E.g., 11710 = 8 | 117 | Reminder | 8 | 14 | 5 | | 1 | 6 | * Therefore answer = 1658 * Hexadecimal * E.g., 11710 = 16 | 117 | Reminder | | 7 | 5 | * Therefore answer = 7516
From Binary To * Octal * Divide the digits in a groupings of THREE (2) Convert to Octal * E.g., 100 110 101 1002 = 100 | 110 | 101 | 100 | 4 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 100 110 101 1002 = 46548 * Hexadecimal * Divide the digits in a groupings of FOUR (2) Convert to Hexadecimal * E.g., 1001 1010 11002 = 1001 | 1010 | 1100 | 9 | 10 | 12 | 1001 1010 11002 = 9AC8 Binary Addition * 0 + 0 = 0 * 1 + 0 = 1 * 1 + 1 = 1 carry 1 Processing Cycle * Program Instructions consists of OPCODE (Computer code or instructions) and OPERAND (data or instruction address). * Processing cycle of the data is as follows: * Fetch Phase * Address of next instruction to be executed in program counter is fetched into CU. * Instruction is fetched into the instruction register. * Program Counter is incremented by 1 to point to the next instruction. * Execute Phase * Instruction is instruction register is decoded. * Instruction is executed. * CU fetches and interprets while ALU executes. Internal Representation * Integers - Represent an integer. Sign bit – positive (0) or negative (1). * Floating Point - values change smoothly and continuously. * Characters * Consist of alphanumeric and symbols. * Consists of: * American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) - 7 bits, used in microcomputers and minicomputers. * Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) – 8 bits, used for IBM mainframe. * UNICODE, a new Worldwide Character Standard - 16-bit, represent world languages and language many professions.

3 – File Organisation and Processing Methods Introduction * There is a difference between handling small amounts and large amount of data. * Choice of file organization is compromised between efficient maintenance and fast retrieval or a balance between the two. Serial File Organisation * No sequence or order in records. * Stored in order they are processed. * Useful for Transaction file and sorting. * Access – Read from beginning to record. * Add – Appended to the end of file. * Delete – Mark for deletion. Utility undelete record. Sequential File Organisation * Unique Identification key (one or more keys) used to sequencing the records. * E.g. customer file * Binary Chop efficiently access sequential file records * Binary Chop: * Record is accessed at mid-point and compared with key * If key if larger, then record at upper half mid point is accessed and compared otherwise the lower half * ‘Halving’ continues until record is found * Add - record copied to a new file and added in appropriate locations. * Delete – Marked for deletion. Utility unmarked records but affects ‘Binary Chop’ effectiveness. Indexed Sequential File Organisation * Allows random and sequential access. * Stored according to key field record. * Data record containing n entry in index is called Anchor Record. * Access – Access Home area else Overflow area using Binary Chop. * Add – To Home area if available else Overflow area. * Delete - Read into memory, deleted and area is rewritten to original location. Direct/Random File Organisation * Also known as Relative file organization. * A mathematical relationship is established between record key and physical address location. * Very suitable for random or small number of records. * Simple mathematical relationship leaves large gaps in file and requires a lot of space. More complex mathematical relation is required. Hashing * A range technique to transform record key into Hashing algorithm. * E.g., 6 digits key, read last 3 digit and store to physical disk the location with the address. * If more than one record has been ‘Hash’ to the same address, the subsequent free block (for one record per block storing). E.g., 314824 collide with 364824 therefore 824 will store 314824 while 825 will store 364824. * Access – calculate address from key then record is read. If record is not found, the next record is read until the record is found. * Add – Calculate Address using Hashing algorithm. If address is empty, write record otherwise next block is used or until an empty block is found. * Delete – Must not be physically deleted to avoid collisions. Deleted records are flagged. Inverted File Organisation * An index is maintained for every field in the record. * Main file will not be accessed if direct queries are not handled. * Data file stores the indexes. * Useful for Queries base on Non-identifying records (inverted queries). * E.g., searching for overdrawn accounts in Customer file. Processing Methods * Single-user, Single Process - Early computer is able to process one job for a single user at a time. * Batch - A series of jobs is set up one after another known as Job Streaming. Relieved operator from loading and unloading jobs. Suitable for payroll, intensive calculations, data backup and archiving. * Multi-programming - Simultaneous execution of several programs held in memory. Objective of multiprogramming: Minimize unused CPU time, Reduce peripheral bound operations, Minimize elapse time and Prevent dominating the CPU. Suitable for well-defined and stable systems. * Interactive - Online system allows users to interact with the computer directly. Commands are entered and response is immediately received. E.g. Ms DOS. * Multi-access and Time Sharing - Two or more users to communicate with the computer at any one time. Given the impression they have sole access to the compute. Programs are in memory and processor executes each process a little at a time by rotating them. * Multi-tasking and Real-Time - Real-Time characteristics: Supports non-sequential programs, Supports unpredictable parallel processing, produce a response within a specific time frame and Operate reliably in a fail safe mode. Suitable for airline reservation system and process control systems. * Networked and Client-Server systems - Cooperation and intercommunication between computers and some computers “serving” others. Most network system supports it. * Distributed Computer Systems - Network computers which its system resources exists in separate node of the network. * Three-Tier Application - Consists of: (1) Workstation or Presentation Interface - application entry, (2) Business Logic - act as the server (3) Database and Programming - share data. * Multiprocessor - Program execution spreads out over several processors. Up to 8 and more processors. Programming Languages * Programming Language is set of words, abbreviations and symbols to communicate instructions to a computer. * Programming Development Tool is a user-friendly environment for building program. * Types of languages: * Low-Level: machine dependent, not portable and one language instruction is only for one instruction * High-Level: one language instruction is for many instructions, machine independent and portable * Low-Level Languages: * Machine language (1st Generation Language) - A series of binary digits (1s and 0s), tedious and time-consuming. * Assembly language (2nd Generation Language) - Uses symbolic codes and address, still difficult to learn and now used to increase performance or hardware controls. * Procedural Language (3rd Generation Language) - late 1950s & 1960s * Instruct what and how to accomplish tasks. * Uses English-like words. * Uses a compiler or interpreter to translate to object code. * Compiler - Translate the entire program before executing. Produce listing of source code and program errors. E.g., COBOL * Interpreter - Translates and executes one statement at a time. Does not run as fast as compiler. E.g. C Object-Oriented Programming Language & Program Development Tools * Based on objects, reusable, event-driven, works well with Rapid Application Development method (RAD). E.g., Java, C#, F#, C++ and Visual Basic. * Integrated Development Environment (IDE) includes tools of user interface, editor, compiler, interpreter and debugger. 1. Analyse Requirements
2. Design Solution
3. Validate Design
4. Implement Design
5. Test
Solution
6. Document Solution
Non-Procedural Language (4th Generation Language) * Enables users to access database. E.g., Structured Query Language (SQL) Web Page Development * Variety of techniques to create Web pages. E.g., HTML, XHML, WML, Scripts, Applets, Servlets, Active X, CGI Scripts etc Program Development * A series of steps to build computer programs. 1. Analyse Requirements - Review Requirements - illustrate input and output requirements, Meet Users - Understand user requirement and Identify Input, Processing, Output and Data - Transforming input into output. 2. Design Solution – Creates Program Logic which is the step-by-step solution. Include Structured or Object modeling. Basic Control Structures are Sequence, Selection and Iteration. Tools include Flowcharts, Pseudocode, and Unified Modeling Language. Structured Design - Uses Hierarchy Chart or Structured Chart to show program modules graphically. Object-Oriented Design - Based on objects. 3. Validate Design - check the program for accuracy using either desk checking or inspection. 4. Implement Design - translating the solution algorithm into a programming code. 5. Test Solution - Program runs correctly and is error free. 6. Document Solution - Review program: for dead code and remove it, Review documentation: Document using charts, algorithm, test data and code listing.

4 – System Development System Development Life Cycle * Set of activities used to build an information system. A number of important steps, some steps maybe ignored or combine. * System Development Life Cycle Guidelines - Group Tasks into Phases, Involve Users and Defined Standards * Project Management - Planning, scheduling, and controlling activities by Project Leader. Elements consists of Goal, Objectives, and Expectations collectively called Scope, Required activities, Time estimates for each activity, Cost estimates for each activity, Order of activities and Activities that can take place at same time * Gantt Chart - Plan and Schedule time relationships among project activities. * Project Management Software – E.g., Ms Project * Feasibility - Measure of how suitable system development to the company. Consists of Operational, Schedule, Technical and Economic (or Cost/Benefit). * Documentation - Summarization of Data and Information; Includes Reports, Diagrams, Programs, and other Deliverables; and Project Notebook contains all Project Documentation. * Six Data and Information Gathering Techniques * Review Documentation – Provides organisation information about its operations, weaknesses and strength. * Observe – Understand how task is performed and works. * Questionnaire – Collect information from a large quantity of people. * Interview – Clarify responses and probe during face-to-face feedback. * Joint Application Design (JAD) session – Lengthy, structured, group meetings with users and IT professionals to design or develop an application. * Research – Newspapers, magazines, reference books, trade shows, Web, vendors and consultant. * Preliminary Investigation - Determine exact nature of problem or improvement and whether it is worth pursuing. Also known as a Feasibility Study. * Detailed Analysis / Logical Design * 1. Study How Current System works * 2. Determine User Requirements * 3. Recommend Solution * Process Modeling * Transform Inputs into Outputs. * Also called Structured Analysis and Design * Tools used Entity-Relationship Diagrams (ERD), Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) and Project Dictionary * Entity-Relationship Diagram (ERD) - Shows connections between entities in system. * Data Flow Diagram (DFD) - Shows flow of data in system. * Project Dictionary * Contains all Documentation and Project Deliverables. * Keep track of huge amount of details * Project Dictionary consists of Structured English, Decision Tables, Decision Trees and Data Dictionary * Decision Table – List of conditions and actions of each condition. * Decision Tree - Shows conditions and actions graphically. * Data Dictionary - Stores name, description, and other details about each data item. * Object Modeling * Object—an item with data and procedures to manipulate data * Combines data with processes acts as an Object * Sometimes called Object-Oriented (OO) Analysis and Design * Uses Unified Modeling Language (UML) — Graphical tool for documenting system * Use Case Diagram - Graphically shows how actors interact with information system. Actor—user or other entity. Use Case— function that actor can perform. * Class Diagram - Graphically shows classes and subclasses in system. Class is group of Objects. Can have lower levels called subclasses. * System Proposal - Assesses Feasibility each Alternative Solution, Presented to Steering Committee and Recommends most Feasible Solution. * Possible Solutions - Buy Packaged Software — Prewritten software available for purchase (Horizontal Market Software — Meets needs of many companies and Vertical Market Software — Designed for particular industry), Write Own Custom Software —Software developed at user’s request or Outsource — Have outside source develop software. * Hardware and Software Requirements - Identify all hardware and software requirements of system. 1. Identify Technical Specifications, 2. Solicit Vendor Proposals, 3. Test and Evaluate Vendor Proposals and 4. Make a Decision. * Documents to Summarize Technical Specifications * Request for Quotation (RFQ) - Identifies product(s) you want, Vendor quotes price(s) for listed product(s) * Request for Proposal (RFP) - Vendor selects product(s) meet(s) requirements and quotes price(s). * Request for Information (RFI) - Informal method to request information about product or service using standard forms. * Software Product Testing (by Systems Analysts) * References from vendor * Talk to current users of product * Product demonstrations * Trial version of software * Benchmark test measures performance * Detailed Design * Detailed design specifications of proposed solution. Sometimes called Physical Design. * Includes several activities Database, Input and Output and Program design. * Mockup - Sample of input or output that contains actual data. * Prototype - Working model of proposed system. Beginning a prototype too early may lead to problems. * Computer-Aided Software Engineering (CASE) - Software tools to support system development activities. * Consists of * Project Repository — Stores diagrams, specifications, descriptions, programs, and other deliverables. * Graphics — Enables drawing of diagrams. * Prototyping — Creates models of proposed system. * Quality assurance —Analyzes deliverables for accuracy. * Code generators — Create actual computer programs from design specifications. * Housekeeping—Establishes user accounts and provides backup and recovery functions. * Integrated Computer-Aided Software Engineering (I-CASE) - Integrated case products. * Inspections - Step-by-step review by project team and users of deliverable, Review detailed design specifications before given to programming team, Identifies errors and allows IT personnel to correct them and Used throughout entire system development to review a variety of deliverables. * Four Types of Tests by System Developers * Unit Test - Verifies each individual program works by itself. * Integration Test - Verifies application works with other applications. * Systems Test - Verifies all programs in application work together. * Acceptance Test - Verifies the new system works with actual data. * Training - Showing users exactly how to use new hardware and software in system. * Conversion Strategies - Used to change from old system to new system. * Categories of Conversion Strategies: * Direct conversion – Stop using the old system and begins using the new system on a certain date. * Parallel conversion – Running the old and new for a specific time period. * Phased conversion – Each location converts at a separate time. * Pilot conversion – Only one location in the organisation uses the new system. Once pilot site approves the new system, other sites convert using the new system. * Operation, Support, and Security Phase - Provides ongoing assistance after system is implemented. Conduct post-implementation system review— find out if information system is performing according to expectations. * Computer Security Plan - Summarizes safeguards to protect a company’s information assets. * Identify all information assets, Identify all Security Risks, identify the safeguards to detect, prevent, and recover from a loss.

5 – Software
Software
* Consists of a series of related instructions to tell the computer what to perform. * Categories of Software: * System Software * Control or maintain operations of the computer and its devices. * E.g., Operating System and Utility programs. * Application Software * Make users more productive and/or assist them with personal tasks. * E.g., Web Applications, Word processing, Spreadsheets, Computer-Aided Design, Desktop Publishing, Tax Preparation and etc. * Application Software Forms: * Packaged Software - Mass-produced, copyrighted retails, Meets a variety of users needs, Available in retail stores or on the Web. * Custom Software - Functions specific to a business or industry, Tailor-made software, Usually cost more. * Web Application - Interact from any computer or device connected to the Internet, Many are provided free, some charge a fee, E.g., e-mail, word processing, tax preparation and games. * Open Source Software - Provided for use, modification and redistribution, No copyrighted on modification and its redistribution, Downloaded from the Internet, Often at no cost. * Shareware – Copyrighted, Distributed at no cost for a trial period, a payment to use beyond the stated trial period, Scaled-down version is free, Payment for a full version. * Freeware - Copyrighted, no cost, Individual or company retains all rights to the software, cannot incorporate into program for reselling. * Public-domain Software - Donated for public use, no copyrighted, can copy or distribute to others at no cost.
System Software * Serves as an interface between the user, application software and computer hardware. * Operating Systems (OSs) is a set of programs to coordinate all activities among computer hardware resources. * Platform is the computer the operating system uses. * Cross-platform program is one that runs the same on multiple operating systems. * Operating System Functions: * Starting and Shutting Down A Computer * Providing a User Interface * Graphical User Interface (GUI) - Interacts with menus and other visual images. E.g., Windows 7, Windows Vista. * Command Line – Interacts by using commands. * Managing Programs * Single User / Single Task Operating System - Allows only one user to run a program at a time. * Single User / Multitasking - Enables two or more users to run programs simultaneously. * Preemptive Multitasking - Prevent any one process from dominating the computer resources. * Multiuser - Enables two or more users to run programs simultaneously. * Multiprocessing - Supports two or more processors running programs simultaneously. * Fault-Tolerant - Continues to operate when one of its components fails, ensuring no data is lost. * Managing Memory * Allocates and release memory addresses. * Virtual Memory - Allocates a portion of storage medium, usually the hard disk as additional RAM. * Windows ReadyBoost - Allocates available space on removable Flash Memory devices as additional cache memory. * Coordinating Tasks - Determines the order in which tasks are processed. * Configuring Devices - Driver or Device Driver is a small program that tells the operating system how to communicate with a specific device. * Establish Internet Connection - Provides Connection or Network wizards in Internet connections. * Monitoring Performance - Assesses and reports information about various computer resources and devices. * File Management and Other Utilities – Managing, Searching, Viewing, Securing and Uninstalling programs * Updating Software Automatically – Bugs fixes, security enhancements, device drivers updates, new or expanded components. Known as Service Packs. Available on CD for free. * Controlling a Network - Oversees network operations, manage users, manage resources and administer security controls. * Administer Security - Access all files, program on computer or network, install program and specify network settings.
Utility Programs * Perform maintenance-type tasks in managing its computer, devices and its programs. * Built-in the operating system or can be purchased as stand-alone utilities. * E.g., File Manager, Search Utility, Image Viewer, Uninstaller, Disk Cleanup, Disk Defragmenter, Backup and Restore Utilities and Screen Saver
Application Software * Business Software – To become more effective and efficient in daily activities. E.g., word processing, spreadsheet, databases, presentation, note taking, personal information manager, project management, accounting, document management and enterprise computing software. * Word processing - Create and manipulate text and graphic documents. Features - Newspaper-style columns, spelling checker, grammar checking, Thesaurus and Research, Voice Recognition. E.g., Microsoft Word, Apple pages, Corel WordPerfect * Spreadsheet - Organise data in rows and columns, formula and function (predefined formula), what-if analysis, charts. E.g., Microsoft Excel, Apple Numbers, Corel Quattro Pro * Database is a collection of data organised to allow access, retrieval and use. E.g., Microsoft Access, Corel Paradox, Oracle Database, Sun MySQL * Presentation - Allows users to create visual aids for presentation to a group. E.g., Microsoft Powerpoint, Apple Keynote, Corel Presentation * Note Taking - enter typed text, handwritten comments, drawings, or sketches. E.g., Microsoft OneNote, Agilix GoBidder, Corel Grafigo, Snapfiles KeyNote * Business Suite - Collection of individual programs available together as a unit. E.g., Microsoft Office, Apple iWork, Corel WordPerfect Office and Google Docs. * Personal Information Manager - Help organise personal information. E.g., Microsoft Outlook, Google Calendar, Lotus Organiser, Palm Organiser and Mozilla Thunderbird. * Business Software for Phones - Preloaded on phone, downloaded or accessed on memory cards inserted. * Project Management - Plans, schedule, track and analyse events, resources and cost or projects. * Accounting - Helps companies record and report their financial transactions. * Document Management – Provide means of sharing, distributing and searching through documents. E.g,. Adobe PDF (Portable Document Format), Enfocus PitStop, Nuance PDF Converter. * Enterprise Computing - Provides special computing solutions because of its size and geographical distribution. E,g., Oracle PeopleSoft Enterprise, Sage MAS 500, MSC.SimManager, Oracle Manufacturing, mySAP Customer Relationship Management, NetERP, Syntellect Interaction Management Suite. * Graphics and Multimedia * Computer-Aided Design (CAD) - Used in creating engineering, architectural, and scientific designs. E.g., Autodesk AUTOCAD, Chief Architect, Microsoft Visio. * Desktop Publishing - Create sophisticated documents containing text, graphics and many colors. E.g., Adobe InDesign, Corel Ventura, quark QuarkXPress * Paint / Image Editing - Create and modify graphical images. E.g., Abode Illustrator, Corel Painter, Microsoft Expression Design. * Photo Editing - Edit and customise digital photos and Save in a variety of formats. E.g., Abobe PhotoShop, Arcadia PhotoPerfect Ultimate, Nik Professional Suite. * Video and Audio Editing - Modify a segment of video clip or audio clips. E.g., Adobe Audition, Adobe Premier Pro, Adobe Soundbooth. * Multimedia Authoring - Combine text, graphics, audio, video and animation in an interactive application. E.g., Adobe Director, Agilix GoCourse, SumTotal ToolBook Instructor * Web Page Authoring - Organise, manage and maintain Web sites. E.g., Adobe Dreamweaver, Adobe Fireworks, Adobe Flash, Microsoft Expression Web, Microsoft SharePoint Designer * Software for Home, Personal and Educational Use * Personal Finance - Simplified accounting in home users and small office/home office users to balance income and expenses. E.g., IGG iBank, Intuit Quicken * Legal - Provide contracts on buying, selling and renting properties, estate planning, marriage and divorce and preparation of will or living trusts. E.g., Broderbund Home and Business Lawyer, Cosmi Perfect Attorney, Nolo Quicken Legal Business * Tax Preparation - Guide in filing federal taxes, money-saving tips and lower tax bills. E.g., 2nd Storey TaxACT, H&R TaxCut, Intuit TurboTax. * Web Applications – Exist on a Web site, such as maps and directions. Some Web applications store your data and information at their site. Some are free. E.g., Britannica.cm (reference), Flickr (photo editing), Gmail (email), Google Docs (Productivity Software), TaxACT Online (Tax Preparation), YouSendIt (File Transfer and Email) * Application Software for Communications - E-mail, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Web Browsers, Chat Rooms, Video conferencing and Blogging. * Web-Based Training (WBT) - Self-directed, self paced on the Web, Distance learning (DL) is the delivery of education online.

6 – Data Communication
Introduction
* Communications * Data exchange over private cable or satellite. * Expanded usefulness of computer in Workplace and in Homes.
Communications Technology * Blogs – Time-stamped online articles reflecting the author’s interests, opinions, and personality. * E-Mail – Transmission of digital messages over the network. * Instant Messaging – Real-time one-to-one or many internet communications service. * Chat Rooms – Real time typed conversation among two or more people. * RSS – Specification to distribute Web content. * Newsgroups – Online written discussions about a particular subject. * Internet – Worldwide collection of networks. * VoIP – Conversation over the Internet via computers, mobile device or telephone adapter. * File Transfer Protocol (FTP) – Transmits and receives documents over telephone lines. * Web Folders – Web server location publish documents and files. * Video Conferencing – Real time meeting between 2 or more geographically separated people. * Fax Machine or Computer Fax/Modem – Transmits and receives document over telephone lines. * Wikis – Collaborative Web sites to maintain Web site content.
Computer Communications * Wireless Internet Access Point - wireless connection to public 3G Network. * Cybercafé - coffee house with computers with Internet access * Global Positioning System (GPS) - one or more earth-based receivers that accepts and analyse signals sent by satellite. * Web services - Communicate to remote computers over the Internet or on an internal network.
Benefits of Networking * Facilitate communication – Communicate efficiently and easily via e-mail, instant messaging, chat rooms, blogs, wikis and groupware. * Sharing hardware – Each networked computer can have access to another hardware. E.g., printer. * Sharing Data and Information – Authorised access to networked data and information. * Sharing Software – Network access allows sharing of software. Network license - multiple user access at a lower price. * Transferring Funds – Electronic Fund Transfer (EFT) to transfer money.
Network
* Connected computers and devices via communications devices and transmission media. * Local Area Network (LAN) * Connects within a limited geographic area. * E.g., home, school, office building or closely positioned group of buildings. * Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) * Connects LANs in city or town * Wide Area Network (WAN) * Connects over a wide geographical area on international boundaries. * E.g., Internet (largest WAN), city, country, or the world.
Network Architectures * Design of computers, devices and media in a network. * Categorised into Client/Server or Peer-to-Peer. * Client/Server - One or more computers as server and client access server. * Peer-to-Peer - Simple network, Each computer are equal, fewer than 10 computers * Internet Peer-to-Peer (P2P) - Connect through hard disks and exchange files directly.
Network Topology * Layout of computers and devices in a network. * Popular topologies are Bus, Ring, and Star * Most modern networks, including the Internet use a combination of topologies.
Star network * All devices connect to a central device, called hub * Each device needs its own cable to the Hub * Predominant type of topology * Easy to maintain and expand
Bus network * All computers and devices connect to central cable, or bus * Characteristics: * Maintained by a single cable * Must end with a terminator * Uses thin coaxial cable (backbones in thick coaxial cable) * Stations added in a daisy chain manner
Ring network * All computers and devices arranged along a closed ring. * Data travels in one direction in the loop. * All devices are equal. * Single ring - data travels in one direction only. * Double ring – data travels in two directions. * Must wait for turn to transmit. * Most common type is Token Ring (IEEE 802.5) * A token contains the data, reaches the destination, data extracted, acknowledgement of receipt sent back to transmitting device, removed, empty token passed on for another device to use
Factors of Network Topology Cost * Scalability * Bandwidth Capacity * Ease of Installation * Ease of fault finding and maintenance
Network Communication Standards * TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) technology transmits data by breaking it up into small packets * Commonly used for Internet transmissions * Wi-Fi (802.11) is family of standards for wireless LANs. * WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) * Also known as 802.6 * Wireless devices communicate over air in a wide area. * Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) * Internet displays in mobile devices such smart phones.
Telephone Network * Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) * Worldwide telephone service (voice). * Today, nearly all uses digital except for the final link to the local telephone company which is still analog. * Transmit data, instruction and information. * Up to 56Kbps at present. * Dedicated Lines * Always-on connection between two communication devices. * Connect geographically distant offices. * Can either by digital or analog. * Five types of digital dedicated lines are ISDN lines, DSL, FTTP, T-carrier and ATM. * Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) lines * For small business or home user. * Not widely used today. * Transmission is over copper telephone lines. * Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) * Popular among small business and home users. * Fast speed on copper telephone wirings. * Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) * Carries voice, data, video and multimedia at high speed. * Used in telephone networks, the Internet and other large networks.

Communication Devices * Any hardware capable of transmitting data between sending and receiving devices. * E.g., Dial-up modem, digital modems, wireless modems, network cards, Wireless Access Points (WAPs), routers, hubs and switches. * Dial-up Modem * Modem Stands for Modulator / Demodulator * Converts digital signals to analog signals and vice versa * Notebook computers often use PC Card modem * Internal modem is a plug-in card onto the computer expansion slot and plug into telephone outlet on the other end. * Cable modem * Sends and receives data over cable television network. * Much faster than dial-up modem or ISDN. * Sometimes called a Broadband Modem * Wireless Modem * Allows access to the Web wirelessly from a notebook computer, a PDA, a smart phone, or other mobile device * Typically use the same waves used by cellular telephones * Network Card * Adapter card, PC Card, or Flash Card that enables computer or device to access network. * Sometimes called Network Interface Card (NIC) * Wireless Access Point * Central communications device that allows computers and devices to transfer data wirelessly among themselves or to a wired network. * Router * Connects multiple computers and devices together to transmit data to correct destination on network. * Routers forward data on Internet using fastest available path. * Some routers have a built-in hardware Firewall. * Hub or Switches * Device that provides central point for cables in network. * Some hubs or switches include routers.
Transmission Mediums * Transmission mediums consist of materials or substances capable of carrying one or more signals. * Typical media: * Twisted-Pair * Coaxial Cable * Fiber-Optic Cable * Microwave Transmission * Broadband * Twisted-Pair * It is used for telephone systems and network cabling. * It consists of two separate insulated copper-wires that are twisted together. * Coaxial cable * Consists of a single copper insulating material, a woven or braided metal and a plastic outer coating. * Coaxial cable is often used for cable television wiring. * Fiber-Optic Cable * Consist of an insulating glass cladding, a protective coating surround each optical fiber. * Advantages: * Capable of carrying significantly more data at faster speeds than wire cables * Faster data transmission * Less susceptible to interference (noise), therefore, more secure * Smaller size (thinner and lighter) * Disadvantages: * Costs more * Difficult to install and modify * Cellular Radio * A form of broadcast radio, widely used for mobile communications, specifically wireless modems and cell phones. * Uses high-frequency radio waves to transmit voice and digital data messages. * Categories of cellular providers are as follows: * 1G (1st Generation) – Transmits Analog data * 2G (2nd Generation) – Transmit Digital data between 9.6 Kbps and 19.2 Kbps * 3G (3rd Generation) – Transmit Digital data between 144 Kbps and 2.4 Mbps. * 4G (4th Generation) – Transmit Digital data up to 15 Mbps. * Microwave Transmission * Involves sending signals from one microwave station to another. * A microwave station is an earth-base reflective dish that contains the antenna, transceivers, and other equipments. * Transmission is up to 4,500 times faster than a dial-up modem. * E.g., Universities, Hospitals, City Government, Cable Television providers and Telephone companies. * Broadband * A range of technologies to access the internet at much higher speeds than normal dial-up connections. * Current 'narrowband' systems carry information at a rate of 56kbps (kilobits per second), broadband rates is of 512kbps and can offer speeds many times faster. * Broadband can dramatically improve: * Efficiency * Customer service * Dealings with Suppliers
Internet, Intranet and Extranet * Internet * A world-wide network of interconnected computers and computer networks. * Internet2 is not profit research on connecting universities and companies via high speed private network. * E-commerce (Electronics Commerce) is the business transaction that occurs over the Internet. * Internet Services: * Electronic mail (e-mail) - E.g., Eudora, Netscape Mail, Outlook Express, * World Wide Web Browser - Internet Explorer, Netscape Navigator * Search Engine - Google, AltaVista, Lycos * Internet Service Provider (ISP) - Your access to the Internet * Intranet * It is a private computer network that uses Internet protocols. * Makes company information accessible to employees and facilitate working in groups. * Includes electronic publishing of telephone directories, events calendars, procedure manuals, employee benefits and job posting. * More sophisticated intranet includes groupware applications such as project management, chat rooms, group scheduling and video conferencing. * Extranet * Allows customers or suppliers to access part of its Intranet. * Provides secure physical access to company’s network. * Efficiency replacing the postal service, faxes and telephone calls. * It has even replaced Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) systems. * E.g., print air bills, schedule pick-ups and track shipped packages.

7 – Introduction to Database System
Data and Information * Database: * Collection of data organized so you can access, retrieve, and use it. * Database software allows you to * Create database * Add, change, and delete data * Sort and retrieve data * Create forms and reports * Database software also called Database Management System (DBMS) * Relationship between Data and Information: * Data is raw facts. * Information is data that is organized and meaningful. * Computers process data into information. * Data Integrity: * Degree to which data is correct * Garbage In, Garbage Out (GIGO) — computer phrase that means you cannot create correct information from incorrect data * Qualities of Valuable Information: * Accurate, Verifiable, Timely, Organized, Accessible, Useful and Cost-effective * Types of Databases and Database Applications * Traditional Applications: * Numeric and Textual Databases * More Recent Applications: * Multimedia Databases * Geographic Information Systems (GIS) * Data Warehouses * Real-time and Active Databases * Many other applications * Typical DBMS Functionality: * Define a particular database in terms of its data types, structures, and constraints * Construct or Load the initial database contents on a secondary storage medium * Manipulating the database: * Retrieval: Querying, generating reports * Modification: Insertions, deletions and updates to its content * Accessing the database through Web applications * Processing and sharing by a set of concurrent users and application programs – yet, keeping all data valid and consistent. * Other features: * Protection or Security measures to prevent unauthorized access. * “Active” processing to take internal actions on data. * Presentation and Visualization of data. * Maintaining the database and associated programs over the lifetime of the database application * Called database, software and system maintenance.

Hierarchy of Data * Hierarchy: * Database contains files, file contains records, record contains fields, field contains characters. * Field: * Combination of one or more characters. * Smallest unit of data user accesses. * Field name uniquely identifies each field. * Field size defines the maximum number of characters a field can contain. * Data type specifies kind of data field contains.

Maintaining Data * File maintenance: * Procedures that keep data current. * Adding records, Changing records or Deleting records * Add - Add new record when you obtain new data. * Change - Correct inaccurate data. Update old data. * Delete - When record no longer is needed. Some programs remove record immediately, others flag record. * Validation: * Process of comparing data with a set of rules to find out if data is correct. * Reduce data entry errors and enhance data integrity before program writes data on disk.

File Processing Versus Databases * File Processing System: * Each department or area within organization has own set of files * Records in one file may not relate to records in any other file * May have weaknesses * Data redundancy—same fields stored in multiple files * Isolated data—data stored in separate files so it is difficult to access * Database approach: * Many programs and users can share data in database * Secures data so only authorized users can access certain data * Strengths of the Database approach: * Reduced Data Redundancy * Improved Data Integrity * Shared Data * Easier Access * Reduced Development Time * Differences between Database application and File processing application in the way they store data:

Database Management Systems * Data Dictionary: * Contains data about each file in database and each field within those files * Query: * Request for specific data from a database. * Query language consists of simple, English-like statements that allow users to specify data to display, print, or store. * Query by Example (QBE): * Has a graphical user interface that assists users with retrieving data * Program retrieves records that match criteria entered in form fields * Form: * Window on screen that provides areas for entering or changing data in database * Used to retrieve and maintain data in a database * Form that sends data across network or Internet is called e-form, short for electronic form * Report Generator: * Also called Report writer * Allows user to design a report on screen, retrieve data into report design, then display or print reports * Data security: * DBMS provides means to ensure only authorized users can access data. * Access privileges define activities a user or group of users can perform. * Read-only privileges - user can view data, but cannot change it * Full-update privileges - user can view and change data * Backup and Log: * Backup is a copy of the entire database * Log is a listing of activities that change database contents * DBMS places three items in log: before image, actual change, and after image * Recovery utility: * Uses logs and/or backups to restore database when it is damaged or destroyed * Rollforward— DBMS uses log to re-enter changes made to data-base since last save or backup. Also called Forward Recovery * Rollback— DBMS uses log to undo any changes made to database during a certain period of time. Also called Backward Recovery

Relational, Object-Oriented, and Multidimensional Databases * Data model: * Rules and standards that define how database organizes data * Defines how users view organization of data * Four popular data models * Relational * Object-oriented * Object-relational * Multidimensional * Relational Database: * Stores data in tables that consist of rows and columns * Each row has primary key * Each column has unique name * Stores data relationships * Uses specialized terminology * Relationship: Connection within data * Structured Query Language (SQL): * Allows you to manage, update, and retrieve data * Has special keywords and rules included in SQL statements * Object-Oriented database (OODB): * Stores data in objects * Object is item that contains data, as well as actions that read or process data * Advantages * Can store more types of data * Can access data faster * Often uses Object Query Language (OQL) * E.g., Multimedia, Groupware, CAD, Hypertext and Hypermedia databases. * Multidimensional database: * Stores data in dimensions * Multiple dimensions, also called Hypercube, allow users to analyze any view of data * Can consolidate data much faster than relational database * Data Warehouse: * Huge database system that stores and manages data required to analyze historical and current transactions * Quick and efficient way to access large amounts of data * Often uses a process called Data Mining to find patterns and relationships among data * Uses Multidimensional databases * Data Mart is smaller version of data warehouse

Web Databases * Database you access through the Web by filling in a form on a Web page * Usually resides on a database server, a computer that stores and provides access to a database

Database Administration * Guidelines for Developing a Database: 1. Determine the purpose of the database 2. Design the tables * Design tables on paper first * Each table should contain data about one subject 3. Design the records and fields for each table * Be sure every record has a unique primary key * Use separate fields for logically distinct items * Do not create fields for information that can be derived from entries in other fields * Set default values for frequently entered data 4. Determine the relationships among the tables * Role of the Database Analyst and Administrator: * Database Analyst (DA) * Focuses on meaning and usage of data * Decides proper placement of fields, defines relationships, and identifies users’ access privileges * Database Administrator (DBA) * Creates and maintains data dictionary, manages database security, monitors database performance, and checks backup and recovery procedures

Introduction to Normalization * Normalization is the process of creating and organizing data in the database. * Database designed abiding the rules of normalization would have the most consistency and do not have redundant information stored. * If a database allows redundant information, then there is a potential of loss of more disk space due to the duplicate data. * Normalization methods help to eliminate redundancy and inconsistent data dependency between the data stored in the database. * Redundancy * The same information stored in multiple tables. E.g., customer address is maintained in two different tables. * Eliminate redundancy to prevent the complexity whenever there is a need to change or update such records. * If the customer address needs an update and database design did not eliminate redundancy, then address has to be changed in all the places in the database. * Normalization help eliminate this redundancy. * Inconsistent Dependency * It is accurate to search for customer address in the customer table, but not to look for employee salary in the customer table. These are called inconsistent dependencies. * Employee salary would be maintained in the Employee table which is logically connected to the Customer table on some key fields. * Any inconsistent dependency would require a complex search to retrieve the data as there might be no logical path defined for the search accurately. * Database Normalization * Database normalization rules known as Normal Forms can eliminate redundancy and inconsistent dependency among the database objects. * Normal forms exist up to 6th normal form however the first four normal forms are widely used and popular database normalization techniques. * First Normal Form: * Eliminates repeating groups or columns in a table. * Creates a different table for each set of related attributes. * Identify each set of related records in the table with the help of a primary key field. * Second Normal Form: * Has all the rules like First Normal Form. * Creates a different table may be a master table for set of values that apply to multiple records. * Creates a link between the different tables with the help of primary and foreign key relationships. * Third Normal Form: * Has all the rules like Second Normal Form * Eliminates data field in the table which doesn’t depend on the key field of the table. * Fourth Normal Form: * Has all the rules like Third Normal Form * Eliminates the multi valued dependency of the table relations. * The Normalization techniques or rules are a guideline to the database design.

8 – Information Systems
Evolution of Information Systems * Information Systems (IS) has become an essential component of a successful business. * System is a set of connected things that form a whole or work together. It consists of inputs, outputs, boundary and a common objective. * Data is the encoded representation of information. * Information is derived from data; information is useful in solving problems. Information is the meaning that a person assigns to data by means of known conventions used in its representation. * Information System (IS) is any system that makes use of IT. * Information Technology (IT) is any technology concerned with the capture, storage, transmittal or presentation of information. * Information System and Business * In early computing days (1950s and 60s), technology involved was minimal. * Most organizations, it was viewed as unfortunate, costly, by-product of doing business. * Over time, IS plays a larger role in business or enterprise. * In 1950s, IS was Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) performed simple mechanistic tasks with little integration between business functions. * In 1960s and 1970s, the management-level systems lead to the integration of information between independent systems. * This led IS to play a Strategic role in most businesses. * Information Systems and Society * Developed nations live in the Information / Knowledge age. * Knowledge workers produce goods and services with speed and efficiency with the use of computers. * Cheap technology links over electronic superhighways and provides services to business. * Information becomes a valuable asset. * Worker’s ability to assimilate information into knowledge makes businesses more effectively. * Information is the key to organization future success. * Business Value Chain * Same industry may have similar chains. Value chains of competitors differ in details. * Differences among value chains are a key source of competitive advantage. * Value is the amount clients or customers are willing to pay for what a company provides. * Total revenue is the product price and units it can sell. * Profit is value it commands exceeds the manufacturing costs. * Value activities are divided into Primary and Support activities. * Primary activities are physical product creation, sales and transfer to buyer and after sales services. * Support activities support the primary activities and each other.
Management Levels * Levels of Information * Identified at the various levels of organization: * Top Management – Information is ill-structured, ad hoc, informal, external, uncertain, and concerned with the future. * Middle Management – Information is more structured, formal, internal, regular, certain and concerned with the near future. * Supervisory Management – Information is repetitive, programmable, largely internal and has very short time horizon. * The higher management, the less he or she will rely on formal information. * The lower management relies on precise and up-to-date information. * Supervisory management requires day-to-day personnel performance information. * Middle management deals with Tactical information, Supervisory with Operational information while Top management deals with Strategic information.
Types of Information Systems * Transaction Processing Systems (TPS) * Performs and records the daily routine transaction in business. * Supports the MIS and DSS systems employed by Middle Management. * Computerizes the primary and most secondary activities on Value Chain. * Primary purpose to perform transactions and collect data. * E.g., Order Processing, preparing a payroll, Accounts Receivable, Accounts Payable, General Ledger, Billing Customers, Point-of-Sale and Warehouse operations. * Knowledge Management System (KMS) and Office Automation Systems (OAS) * Knowledge Management System (KMS) * Supports information and knowledge workers in organization. * Ensures new technology and expertise are properly integrated into business. * Today it supports clerical, professional, technical and managerial workers. * They exists between top and middle management. They are professional, such as financial and marketing analysts act as advisors and assistants to top and middle management. * Finding or developing organisation’s new knowledge (External Content) and integrating it with existing knowledge (Internal Content). * Office Automation System (OAS) * Any IT application to increase the productivity of office workers. * Predominantly used by clerical workers to support all levels of manager. * Also known as Data workers. * E.g., Word Processing Systems, Document Management Systems and Desktop Publishing Systems. * Management Information Systems (MIS) * Middle management that provide managers with reports and online access to organization’s current performance and historical records. * Condense information from operational level and present it in a form of summary and problem reports. * Have limited analytical capabilities and are oriented almost towards internal – not environmental or external events. * Decision Support Systems (DSS) * Decisions that is semi-structured, unique or rapidly changing. * More analytical capabilities to employ several different models to analyze information. * Draws information from TPS, MIS and external sources. * Employed by Tactical management whose decisions and What-If Analysis are less structured. * Not only present results but also expands the information with alternatives. * E.g., Mathematical Modeling, Simulation Queries, What-If (OLAP-Cubes) and Data Mining. * Executive Support Systems (ESS) * Relatively new, supports decision by Senior management and serve the Strategic level of organization. * Address unstructured decisions, general computing and communication environment. * Oriented toward external events, but take summarized information from MIS and DSS. * Intelligent Support Systems (ISS) * Artificial Intelligence (AI) performs intelligent problem solving. * Expert Systems (ESs) * Provide stored experts knowledge to non-experts, using artificial intelligence and solve difficult or time-consuming problems. * Extracts a set of rules and data from an expert or experts through extensive questioning.
Executive Support System (ESS)
Knowledge Management System (KMS) & Office Automation System (OAS)
Transaction Processing System
Intelligence Support System (ISS)
Management Information System (MIS)
Decision Support System (DSS)
Types of Information Systems

9 – Security and Privacy
Computer Security: Definitions and Concepts * Computer Security Risk is any event or actions that cause a loss or damage to computer hardware, software, data, information or processing. * Computer Security has three aspects: * Confidentiality – Sensitive data is kept private * Integrity – Data is accurate * Availability – Able to access data when required. * Cybercrimes refers to online or Internet-based illegal acts. * Cybercrime perpetrators are hackers, crackers, script kiddies, corporate spy, unethical employee, cyberextortionist and cyberterrorists.
Computer Security Mechanisms * Prevention - prevent security violations from taking place. * Detection - detect attempts violation and successful security violations that occurred. * Recovery - restore a system state to a pre-violation state.
Computer System Security and Access Controls * Computer security covers a lot of territory: * Lock computer room and machine, * Protect login accounts with Passwords, * File protection to keep data from being destroyed, * Encrypting communications lines, * Using special shields to keep electromagnetic emanations from leaking out of your computer. * Also known as Computer System Security.
Security Risks
SECURITY RISKS
Internet & Network Attacks
Unauthoris-ed
Access & Use
Hardware Theft
Software Theft
System Failure
Information Theft
Intercepting Wireless Communications
Stolen Computer
Illegal Copying
Stolen Identity
Virus Attacks
Lightning Strike

Common Security Attacks & Their Counter Measures * Finding a way into the Network * Firewalls – Combination of hardware or software to block unauthorised access to computer network. * Exploiting Software Bugs * Buffer overflows – Occurs during program error or security attacks on data integrity. * Intrusion Detection Systems * Denial of Service – An attack that floods that system to prevent legitimate users to access information or service. E.g., email, websites, online account etc. * Ingress Filtering * Intrusion Detection System (IDS) * TCP Hijacking * Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) – A framework of open standard for protecting communication over Internet Protocol (IP) by using cryptographic. * Packet Sniffing * Encryption - Secure Shell (SSH), Secure Socket Layer (SSL), HTTP over SSL or HTTP Secure (HTTPS) * Social Problems * Education
Computer Viruses, Worms, and Trojan Horses * Virus is a potentially damaging computer program. Can spread and damage files. * Worm copies itself repeatedly, using up resources and possibly shutting down computer or network. * Trojan horse hides within or looks like legitimate program until triggered. Does not replicate itself on other computers. * Rootkit hides within and allows someone remotely to take full control of the computer. * Payload (destructive event) that is delivered when file open, run infected program, or boot computer with infected disk in disk drive.
How can a virus spread through an e-mail message? 1. Unscrupulous programmers create a virus program. They attached it in a Word document send it to an e-mail message. 2. The e-mail message is sent to thousands of users around the world. 3. Some users open the attachment and their computers become infected with the virus. 4. Other users do not recognize the sender. They delete the e-mail message. These users’ computers are not infected with the virus.
Antivirus Program * Identifies and removes Computer Viruses. * Most also protect against Worms and Trojan Horses. * E.g, AVG, eTrust EZ, F-Secure, Karpersky, McAfee, Norton, Trend, and Vexira antivirus.
Virus Signature * Specific pattern of Virus Code. * Also called Virus Definition. * Antivirus programs look for virus signatures.
How does an Antivirus program Inoculate a Program file? * Uses information to detect if virus tampers with file * Records information about program such as file size and creation date. * Attempts to remove any detected virus. * Quarantines infected files that it cannot remove. * Keeps file in separate area of hard disk
Some tips for preventing Virus, Worm, and Trojan Horse infections * Set the Macro Security in programs so to enable or disable macros * Install an Antivirus program on all of computers * Never open an e-mail attachment unless you are expecting it and it is from a trusted source * If the antivirus program flags an e-mail attachment as infected, delete the attachment immediately * Check all downloaded programs for Viruses, Worms, or Trojan Horses * Install a personal Firewall program
Denial of Service and Back Door * Denial of Service Attack - an assault to disrupts computer access to an Internet service such as the Web or e-mail. * Back Door - a program or set of instructions that allow users to bypass security controls when accessing a computer resource.
Companies protect against Hackers * Intrusion Detection Software analyzes network traffic, assesses system vulnerabilities, and identifies intrusions and suspicious behavior. * Access Control defines who can access computer and what actions they can take. * Audit Trail records access attempts. Unauthorized Access and Use * Other ways to protect personal computer: * Disable file and printer sharing on Internet connection
Hardware Theft and Hardware Vandalism * Hardware theft is act of stealing computer equipment * Cables sometimes used to lock equipment * Some notebook computers use passwords, possessed objects, and biometrics as security methods * For PDAs, you can password-protect the device * Hardware vandalism is act of defacing or destroying computer equipment.
User Name * Unique combination of characters that identifies user. * Password is private combination of characters associated with the user name that allows access to computer resources.
Possessed Object * Item carried to gain access to computer or facility * Often used with numeric password called Personal Identification Number (PIN)
Biometric Device * Authenticates person’s identity using personal characteristic * Fingerprint, hand geometry, voice, signature, and iris
Software Theft * Software Theft occurs when someone: * Steal Software media – Physically stealing the media containing the software or hardware * Intentionally erases programs – Dishonest programmer intentionally remove or disable programs written for the company. * Illegally copies a program – Unauthorised and illegal duplication of copyrighted software. * Illegally registers and/or activates a program – Illegally obtaining registration numbers and/or activation codes.
Safeguard against Software Theft * License agreement: * Right to use software. * Single-user license agreement to install software on one computer, makes backup copy, and sells software after removing from computer. * Some other Safeguards against Software Theft: * Product activation allows user to input product identification number online or by phone and receive unique installation identification number. * Business Software Alliance (BSA) promotes better understanding of software piracy problems.
Information Theft * Occurs when someone steals personal or confidential information. * Encryption: * Safeguards against information theft. * Converting plaintext (readable data) into ciphertext (unreadable characters). * Encryption key (formula) often uses more than one method. * To read the data, the recipient must decrypt, or decipher, the data

How can I encrypt the contents of files and folders in Windows XP? 1. Right-click file or folder > choose Properties 2. Click Advanced 3. Check “Encrypt contents to secure data”. 4. Click OK
How do Web browsers provide secure data transmission? * Many Web browsers use Encryption * Secure site is Web site that uses encryption to secure data * Digital certificate is notice that guarantees Web site is legitimate
Certificate Authority (CA) * Authorized person or company that issues and verifies Digital Certificates. * Users apply for digital certificate from CA.

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) * Provides encryption of all data that passes between client and Internet server. * Web addresses beginning with “https” indicate secure connections.
System Failure * Prolonged malfunction of computer * Can cause loss of hardware, software, or data * Caused by aging hardware, natural disasters, or electrical power disturbances * Noise — unwanted electrical signal * Undervoltage — drop in electrical supply * Overvoltage or power surge — significant increase in electrical power
Surge Protector * Uses special electrical components to smooth out minor noise, provide stable current and protect from overvoltage. * Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is surge protector that provides power during power loss * Protects computer and equipment from electrical power disturbances.
What is a Backup? * Duplicate of file, program, or disk * Full backup all files in computer * Selective backup select which files to back up * Three-generation backup preserves three copies of important files * In case of system failure or corrupted files, restore files by copying to original location
How can I ensure my Wireless Communication is secure? * Secure your Wireless Access Point (WAP) * WAP should not broadcast your network name. * Enable Wired Equivalent Privacy or Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) * 802.11i network (WPA2) latest network security and provide more sophisticated encryption than WPA.
Computer Ethics * Moral guidelines that govern use of Computers and Information Systems * Unauthorized use of Computers and Networks * Software Theft * Information Accuracy * Intellectual Property Rights — rights to which creators are entitled for their work * Codes of Conduct * Information Privacy
IT Code of Conduct * Written guideline that helps determine whether computer action is ethical. * Employers can distribute to employees.
What is Information Privacy? * Right of individuals and companies to deny or restrict collection and use of information about them * Difficult to maintain today because data is stored online * Employee monitoring is using computers to observe employee computer use * Legal for Employers to use Monitoring Software Programs
Some ways to Safeguard Personal Information * Fill in only necessary information on Rebate, Warranty, and Registration forms * Avoid Shopping Club and Buyers Cards * Install Adware and Spyware remover * Inform Merchants not to distribute your personal information * Limit information provide to Web sites; fill in only required information * Install a Cookie Manager to filter cookies * Clear History file after finished browsing * Set up a free e-mail account for Merchant Forms * Phishing filter is a program that warns of block from fraudulent or suspicious Web sites. * Turn off File and Print Sharing on Internet connection * Install a personal Firewall * Sign up for e-mail filtering through Internet Service Provider or use an Antispam Program, such as Brightmail * Do not reply to Spam for any reason * Surf the Web anonymously with a program such as Freedom Web Secure or through an anonymous Web site such as Anonymizer.com
Electronic Profile * Data collected when you fill out form on Web. * Merchants sell your electronic profile. * Often you can specify whether you want personal information distributed.
Types of Attack * There are different types of attacks on computers which may: * Attempt to access information stored on a computer. * Try to impede or alter the functioning of the computer itself. * Technological Solutions * If correctly installed, the following can help to block attacks: * Firewalls * Authentication * Hardware cryptography * Patches
Security Issues * Security issue extends the use of information about individuals in credit bureaus and government agencies. * Fair Credit Reporting Act allows individuals to check the accuracy of credit information about them. Freedom of Information Act allows people access to data that federal agencies have gathered about them. * Federal Privacy Act allows individuals access to information about them held by government agencies and government private contractors.
5 Basic Network Security Functional Elements * Confidentiality: (Privacy) ensures message content is visible to intended or authorized receivers only. * Authentication: Ensures user integrity through identification of legitimate and illegitimate users. * Authorization: Control of access to network or systems resources to only authenticated users who have specific authorization. * Message integrity: The received message is not altered unintentionally en route compared with the originally sent message. * Non-repudiation: Guarantees that the sender is a legitimate sender of the received message and that the sender cannot later dispute the sending of the message.
Malaysian Cyber Law (http://www.mycert.org.my/bill.html) * Computer Crime Act -1997 * Copyright (Amendment) Bill -1997 * Digital Signature Act -1997 * Telemedicine Bill -1997 * Communication and Multimedia Act -1998 * Digital Signature Regulations -1998