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Clasa a XII-a Elemente de algebrã
Relaþii de echivalenþã. Partiþii Fie M ≠ ∅ . Numim relaþie binarã pe M orice submulþime nevidã ρ a produsului cartezian M D M. Dacã (x; y) i ρ, notãm x ρ y. Fie ρ o relaþie binarã pe mulþimea M. Spunem cã ρ este: • reflexivã, dacã µ x i M, xρx ; • simetricã, dacã µ x, y i M, xρy ± yρx ; • tranzitivã, dacã µ x, y, z i M, xρy ºi yρz ± xρz. O relaþie binarã reflexivã, simetricã ºi tranzitivã se numeºte relaþie de echivalenþã. De multe ori, o relaþie de echivalenþã pe o mulþime M se va nota ~ ; scriem x ~ y (citim x echivalent cu y), sau scriem x : y (citim x nu este echivalent cu y). / Fie n i q* ºi x, y i m. Spunem cã x este congruent cu y modulo n ºi scriem x ≡ y (mod n) dacã n divide x – y. Fie M o mulþime nevidã înzestratã cu relaþia de echivalenþ㠄 ~ “. Pentru a i M, def ˆ clasa de echivalenþã a lui a este mulþimea a ={ x ∈ M | x ~ a} . ¶ Mulþimea claselor de echivalenþã se noteazã M (sau ( M / : ) ) ºi se numeºte def ¶ ˆ mulþimea factor a lui M prin relaþia „ ~ “. M = { a | a ∈ M } . Fie ~ o relaþie de echivalenþã pe M. Clasele de echivalenþã definite de ∼ pe M, sunt disjuncte douã câte douã. Fie M o mulþime nevidã. O familie {Ci}iiI de pãrþi nevide ale lui M se numeºte partiþie a mulþimii M dacã: 1) µ i, j i I, i @ j ⇒ Ci O Cj = l; 2) µ x i M, j i i I astfel încât x i Ci . Fie {Ci}iiI partiþie a mulþimii M. M = N Ci . Pentru o relaþie de echivalenþã pe M, clasele de echivalenþã definite de aceastã relaþie formeazã o partiþie a mulþimii M. Legi de compoziþie Fie M o mulþime nevidã. O aplicaþie ϕ : M D M → M, (x, y) a ϕ(x, y), se numeºte lege de compoziþie (internã) sau operaþie (algebricã, binarã) pe mulþimea M. Elementul ϕ(x; y) i M se numeºte compusul lui x cu y prin ϕ (în aceastã ordine). De obicei, în loc de ϕ(x; y) notãm x C y sau x o y sau x T y sau x ∆ y etc. i∈I 55

Tabla lui Cayley asociatã legii de compoziþie ϕ pe mulþimea M este un tabel cu linii ºi coloane corespunzãtoare elementelor mulþimii M obþinut astfel: la intersecþia liniei ai cu coloana aj se aflã compusul lui ai cu aj prin operaþia ϕ. Ori de câte ori notãm (M, C) subînþelegem cã C este o lege de compoziþie internã pe mulþimea nevidã M.

ϕ a1 a2 ... a j ... an M a1 M a2 M M ai L L L ϕ( ai , a j ) M an

Fie M o mulþime nevidã ºi „C“ o lege de compoziþie pe M. O submulþime nevidã H a lui M se numeºte parte stabilã în raport cu legea de compoziþie „C“ dacã: µ x, y i H ⇒ x C y i H. O lege de compoziþie „C“ se numeºte asociativã dacã: ( x ∗ y ) ∗ z = x ∗ ( y ∗ z ), ∀x , y , z ∈ M . O lege de compoziþie M D M → M, ( x ; y ) a x ∗ y se numeºte comutativã dacã x ∗ y = y ∗ x , ∀x , y ∈ M . Un element e i M se numeºte element neutru pentru legea de compoziþie „C“, dacã ∀x ∈ M e ∗ x = x ∗ e = x . Fie M o mulþime nevidã înzestratã cu o lege de compoziþie „C“ cu element neutru e. Spunem cã un element x i M este simetrizabil în raport cu legea de compoziþie „C“, dacã existã x′ i M astfel încât x′ ∗ x = x ∗ x′ = e . Elementul x′ cu aceastã proprietate se numeºte simetricul lui x. În cazul în care legea de compoziþie este o lege de adunare (de numere, de matrice, de polinoame, de funcþii, de vectori, ...) folosim denumirea de opus în loc de simetric al unui element. Dacã legea de compoziþie este o lege de înmulþire (de numere, de matrice, de polinoame, de funcþii, ...) folosim denumirea de invers în loc de simetric al unui element. Aceeaºi denumire se foloseºte în cazul în care legea de compoziþie este o lege de compunere de funcþii. Fie n i q, n U 2. Notãm mn mulþimea claselor de echivalenþã pentru congruenþa · $ $  modulo n. Avem m n = {0; 1; 2; ...; n − 1} . Pe mn definim operaþiile numite adunarea ºi ˆ ˆ · ˆˆ ¶ ˆ ˆ înmulþirea claselor de resturi modulo n astfel: α + β = α + β , αβ = αβ , ∀ α , β∈ m . n Grupuri Un cuplu (G; C), format cu o mulþime nevidã G ºi cu o lege de compoziþie „∗“ pe G, se numeºte grup dacã legea de compoziþie C este asociativã, are element neutru ºi orice element din M este simetrizabil. Dacã, în plus, legea C este comutativã, atunci G se numeºte grup comutativ sau abelian. Un cuplu (M, C) format cu o mulþime nevidã M ºi o lege de compoziþie „C“ pe M, se numeºte monoid dacã legea C este asociativã ºi are elementul neutru.

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Regulile de simplificare într-un grup. Fie (G , ∗) un grup. Pentru orice a , b , c ∈ G avem: aCb = aCc ⇒ b = c ºi b ∗ a = c ∗ a ⇒ b = c Grupuri de matrice

GL2 (Z ) = { A ∈ M2 (Z ) | det A ≠ 0} înzestrat cu înmulþirea formeazã un grup numit grupul general liniar de grad 2. t –1 Submulþimile SL2 (Z ) = { A ∈ GL2 (Z ) | A = 1} , O (2) = { A ∈ GL2 (Z ) | A = A } , SO (2) = { A ∈ O (2) | det A = 1} , înzestrate cu înmulþirea matricelor formeazã grupuri de matrice, numite respectiv grupul special liniar de grad 2 peste Z, grupul ortogonal de grad 2 ºi grupul ortogonal special de grad 2. Pentru n i q* pot fi definite grupurile SLn({), SLn(Z) ºi SLn(³), numite grupul special liniar de grad n peste {, Z, respectiv ³. De asemenea, pot fi introduse grupurile O(n) ºi SO(n), numite respectiv grupul ortogonal de grad n ºi grupul ortogonal special de grad n.
Morfisme de grupuri Fie grupurile (G , o) ºi (G ′ , ∗) . Funcþia f : G → G′ se numeºte morfism de grupuri dacã: f ( x o y ) = f ( x ) ∗ f ( y ), ∀x , y ∈ G . Fie (G , o) ºi (G ′ , ∗) douã grupuri. O funcþie f : G → G′ se numeºte izomorfism de (2) f este bijectivã. grupuri dacã: (1) f ( x o y ) = f ( x ) ∗ f ( y ), ∀x , y ∈ G ; Spunem cã grupul G este izomorf cu grupul G′ ºi scriem G ; G′ , dacã existã un izomorfism f : G → G′. În caz contrar, spunem cã grupul G nu este izomorf cu grupul G′ ºi scriem G ; G ′ . Dacã G este grup, atunci un morfism (izomorfism) f : G → G se numeºte endomorfism (respectiv automorfism) al grupului G. Grupuri de permutãri Fie A o mulþime finitã cu n elemente, n i q*. O funcþie bijectivã σ : A → A se numeºte permutare a mulþimii A. Vom nota cu SA mulþimea tuturor permutãrilor mulþimii A. Pentru σ, π i SA, compunerea permutãrilor σ ºi π este funcþia σ o π : A → A , cu (σ o π)( x ) = σ(π( x )) , x i A. Funcþia σ o π este de asemenea bijectivã, deci σ o π ∈ S A . ( S A , o) este grup. Grupul permutãrilor mulþimii {1, 2, ..., n} se noteazã ( S n , o) . Subgrupuri Fie (G, ∗) un grup ºi H o parte stabilã a lui G. ( H , ∗) se numeºte subgrup al lui G dacã ( H , ∗) este grup. Fie (G, E) un grup de element neutru e ºi a i G. Spunem cã a este element de ordin finit al grupului G dacã existã m > 0 astfel încât am = e. Dacã a este element de ordin finit, atunci cel mai mic numãr m > 0 cu proprietatea am = e se numeºte ordinul lui a ºi notãm ord a = m. 57

Grupuri de transformãri geometrice O aplicaþie T : P → P se numeºte transformare geometricã a planului P. Vom spune cã T este izometrie dacã T conservã distanþele dintre puncte: d(T(A), T(B)) = d(A, B), µ A, B i P. Notãm cu Izom(P) mulþimea tuturor izometriilor planului P. Dacã T1 ºi T2 sunt izometrii, atunci ºi T1 o T2 este o izometrie. (Izom(P ), o) este un grup, numit grupul izometriilor planului P. Fie F o figurã planã, F ⊂ P ºi T : P → P o izometrie; notãm cu T(F) = {T(P) | P i F}. Spunem cã T invariazã (global) pe F dacã T(F) = F. Notãm cu Sim(F) mulþimea tuturor izometriilor care invariazã pe F. (Sim(F), o ) este un subgrup al grupului ( Izom(P ), o) , numit grupul de simetrie al lui F. Fie n i q, n U 3 ºi Pn un poligon regulat cu n laturi din planul P. Grupul de simetrie al lui Pn se noteazã Dn = Sym(Pn) ºi se numeºte grupul diedral. Inele În cele ce urmeazã, se lucreazã numai cu inele unitare. Un triplet (R, +, E), unde R este o mulþime nevidã iar „ + “ ºi „E“ sunt douã legi de compoziþie pe R (numite adunare ºi înmulþire), se numeºte inel dacã: (G) (R, +) este grup abelian (M) (R, ·) este monoid (D) înmulþirea este distributivã faþã de adunare: ¼ x, y, z i R , x(y + z) = xy + xz , (y + z)x = yx + zx. În inelul R, elementul neutru al legii de compoziþie „ · “ se numeºte element unitate. Spunem cã inelul R nu are divizori ai lui zero, dacã x @ 0, y @ 0 ⇒ xy @ 0 ; în caz contrar spunem cã R este inel cu divizori ai lui zero. Un inel R se numeºte comutativ dacã satisface ºi axioma: (M3) xy = yx, ¼ x, y i R. Un inel comutativ, cu cel puþin douã elemente ºi fãrã divizori ai lui zero, se numeºte domeniu de integritate (sau inel integru). Morfisme de inele Fie inelele (R, +, ·) ºi (R′, ⊕ , e ). O funcþie f : R → R′ se numeºte morfism de inele dacã, µ x, y i R: (1) f (x + y) = f (x) ⊕ f (y) ; (2) f (xEy) = f (x) e f (y); (3) f (1) = 1′, unde 1 este unitatea inelului R ºi 1′ unitatea lui R′. Un morfism de inele bijectiv se numeºte izomorfism. Vom spune cã inelul R este izomorf cu inelul R′, ºi scriem R Y R′, dacã existã cel puþin un izomorfism f : R → R′.

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Grupul unitãþilor. Subinele Elementele inversabile ale unui inel R se numesc unitãþi ale lui R. Notãm cu U(R) mulþimea unitãþilor inelului R. Fie R un inel; U(R) este grup în raport cu operaþia indusã de înmulþirea lui R, numit grupul unitãþilor inelului R. Fie (R, +, ·) un inel cu elementul unitate notat 1 ºi S ⊂ R ; S se numeºte subinel al lui R dacã (S, +, ·) este inel ºi 1 i S. Exemple de inele Numerele complexe a + bi, cu a, b i m se numesc întregi ai lui Gauss (de exemplu: 2 + 3i, –1 + 2i, 4 = 4 + 0i, i = 0 + 1 · i sunt întregi ai lui Gauss). Notãm m[i] = {a + bi | a, b i m} mulþimea întregilor lui Gauss. (m[i], +, ·) este un inel integru. Fie I o mulþime nevidã ºi R un inel. Notãm RI = { f | f : I → R} mulþimea tuturor funcþiilor f : I → R . Pentru f, g i RI ºi x i I, f (x) ºi g(x) sunt elemente ale inelului R. Putem defini astfel funcþiile: f + g : I → R, ( f + g )( x ) = f ( x ) + g ( x ) , x i I ºi fg : I → R, ( fg )( x ) = f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) numite suma, respectiv produsul funcþiei f cu funcþia g. Fie R inel comutativ. Notãm R[X] mulþimea polinoamelor cu coeficienþii în R. (R[X], +, ·) este inel. Fie f i R[X]. Funcþia f *: R → R definitã prin f *(x) = f (x) i R, µ x i R, este numitã funcþia polinomialã asociatã polinomului f. Vom nota funcþia f tot cu f . Zerourile funcþiei polinomiale f , se numesc rãdãcini (din R) ale polinomului f. Aºadar, un element α i R este rãdãcinã (din R) a polinomului f i R[X] dacã f (α) = 0. Corpuri. Morfisme de corpuri Un inel K se numeºte corp dacã 0 @ 1 ºi orice element nenul din K este simetrizabil în raport cu înmulþirea. Dacã înmulþirea este comutativã, K se numeºte corp comutativ. O funcþie f : K → K′ de la un corp K la un corp K′ se numeºte morfism (izomorfism) de corpuri dacã este morfism (izomorfism) de la K la K′ considerate ca inele. Un izomorfism (morfism) f : R → R de la inelul (R, +, ·) în el însãºi se numeºte automorfism (respectiv endomorfism) al inelului R. Aceeaºi terminologie se foloseºte ºi pentru corpuri. Inelul (mn, +, ·) este corp dacã ºi numai dacã n este numãr prim. Aritmetica polinoamelor cu coeficienþi într-un corp comutativ Teorema împãrþirii cu rest. Fie K un corp comutativ ºi f, g i K[X], g @ 0. Existã unic determinate polinoamele q, r i K[X] astfel încât f = gq + r , unde grad r < grad g dacã r @ 0. 59

Polinoamele q ºi r din teorema împãrþirii ( f = gq + r) se numesc câtul, respectiv restul împãrþirii polinomului f prin polinomul g. Fie K corp comutativ ºi f, g i K[X]. Spunem cã f este divizibil cu g ºi notãm g | f sau f M g , dacã existã h i K[X] cu f = gEh. Fie K corp comutativ ºi f, g i K[X]. Spunem cã f este asociat în divizibilitate cu g ºi scriem f : g , dacã f | g ºi g | f. Teorema restului. Restul împãrþirii polinomului f i K[X] prin X – α i K[X] este egal cu valoarea în α a polinomului f. Teorema lui Bézout. Polinomul f i K[X] se divide prin polinomul X – α i K[X] dacã ºi numai dacã f (α) = 0. Fie K corp comutativ, f i K[X], a i K ºi n i q, n U 2. Spunem cã a este rãdãcinã multiplã de ordin n dacã (X – a)n | f ºi ( X − a)n+1 / f . | Fie K corp comutativ ºi f = an X n + an −1 X n −1 + ... + a1 X + a0 , din K[X]. Polinomul f ′ = nan X n −1 + ( n − 1) an−1 X n − 2 + ... + a1 se numeºte derivata formalã de ordinul I a polinomului f. Derivata formalã de ordinul II a polinomului f este derivata formalã de ordinul I a polinomului f ′ ºi este notatã f ′′. Derivata formalã de ordinul k a polinomului f este derivata formalã de ordinul I a polinomului f ( k −1) . Fie K un corp comutativ ºi f i K[X] un polinom de grad f = n > 0. Spunem cã polinomul f este reductibil peste K dacã existã polinoamele g, h i K[X], de grade strict mai mici ca n, cu f = gh. În caz contrar, spunem cã f este ireductibil peste K. Orice polinom f din K[X], grad f U 1, se descompune în mod unic în produs de polinoame ireductibile peste K. Spaþii vectoriale Fie V ºi K mulþimi nevide. O aplicaþie ψ : K D V → V se numeºte lege de compoziþie externã pe V cu scalari (sau operatori) în K. Fie corpul comutativ (K, +, E). Se numeºte spaþiu vectorial peste K un grup abelian (V, +) înzestrat cu o lege de compoziþie externã cu scalari în K, (α, u) a αu, ce verificã axiomele: (S1) µ α, β i K, µ u i V, (α + β)u = αu + βu (distributivitatea înmulþirii vectorilor cu scalari faþã de adunarea scalarilor) (S2) µ α i K, µ u, v i V, α(u + v) = αu + αv (distributivitatea înmulþirii vectorilor cu scalari faþã de adunarea vectorilor) (S3) µ α, β i K, µ u i V, α(βu) = (αβ)u (asociativitatea înmulþirilor scalarilor ºi vectorilor) 60

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