The Five-Stage Model
1. forming stage – 1st stage. a great deal of uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure, and leadership. Members “test the waters” to determine what types of behaviors are acceptable. This stage is complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of a group..
2. storming stage - The second stage in group development, characterized by intragroup conflict.
3. norming stage The third stage in group development, characterized by close relationships and cohesiveness
4. performing stage The fourth stage in group development, during which the group is fully functional.
5. adjourning stage The final stage in group development for temporary groups, characterized by concern with wrapping up activities rather than task performance. groups that begin with a positive social focus appear to achieve the “performing” stage more rapidly.
Storming and performing can occur simultaneously, and groups can even regress to previous stages.
GROUPS WITH TEMP DEADLINES punctuated-equilibrium model A set of phases that temporary groups go through that involves transitions between inertia and activity.

Work groups have properties that shape members’ behavior and help explain and predict individual behavior within the group as well as the performance of the group itself.
- roles, norms, status, size, cohesiveness, and diversity psychological contract: an unwritten agreement that exists between employees and employer. This agreement sets out mutual expectations: what management expects from workers and vice versa.18

conform to the important groups to which they belong or hope to belong. These important groups are reference groups, in which a person is aware of other members, defines himself or herself as a member or would like to be a member, and feels group members are significant to him or her. all groups do not impose equal conformity pressures on their members.
Deviant workplace behavior (also called antisocial behavior or workplace incivility) is voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and, in doing so, threatens the well-being of the organization or its members.
Types of Deviant Work Behavior:
Production Leaving early Intentionally working slowly Wasting resources

Property Sabotage Lying about hours worked Stealing from the organization

Political Showing favoritism Gossiping and spreading rumors Blaming co-workers

Personal aggression Sexual harassment Verbal abuse Stealing from co-workers

individual employees’ antisocial actions are shaped by the group context within which they work, meaning deviant behavior is more widespread in org’s where the social norm accepts the behavior those working in a group are more likely to lie, cheat, and steal than individuals working alone
Groups provide a shield of anonymity - creating a false sense of confidence that may result in more aggressive behavior. Thus, deviant behavior depends on the accepted norms of the group—or even whether an individual is part of a group.40
Groups develop roles, rights, and rituals to differentiate its members.

status characteristics theory – status derives from 3 sources
- The power a person wields over others. Because they likely control the group’s resources, people who control the outcomes tend to be perceived as high status.
- A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals. People whose contributions are critical to the group’s success tend to have high status.
- An individual’s personal characteristics. Someone whose personal characteristics are positively valued by the group (good looks, intelligence, money, or a friendly personality) typically has higher status than someone with fewer valued attributes. High-status individuals are often given more freedom to deviate from norms than are other group members
High-status people are also better able to resist conformity pressures than their lower-status peers.

They speak out more often, criticize more, state more commands, and interrupt others more often. More assertive. status differences actually inhibit diversity of ideas and creativity in groups, because lower-status members tend to participate less actively in group discussions.

SIZE

Smaller groups = faster at completing tasks, and individuals perform better in smaller groups
If goal is FACT FINDING = larger groups are more effective
Group performance increases with group size, but the addition of new members has diminishing returns on productivity.

Social loafing appears to have a Western bias, in individualistic self-interest cultures such as US and Canada. It is NOT consistent with collective societies that are motivated by in-group goals.

Prevent social loafing:
- Set group goals
- Increase intergroup competition
- Peer evaluation
- Select members that have high motivation and enjoy working in groups
- Base group rewards in part on each member’s unique contributions

Cohesiveness
- Affects group productivity
- relationship between cohesiveness and productivity depends on the group’s performance-related norms
- When: quality, output and cooperation are high, a cohesive group is more productive
- When: cohesiveness is high but performance norms are low, productivity will be low
- When: cohesiveness is low and performance norms are high, productivity increases but will be less than the high cohesive/high norms situation
- When: cohesiveness and performance-related norms are both low, productivity tends to fall into the low-to-moderate range
Encourage cohesion:
- Make group smaller
- Encourage agreement with group goals
- Increase the time members spend together
- Increase group’s status and perceived difficulty of obtaining membership
- Stimulate competition with other groups
- Give rewards as a group
- Physically isolate the group (makes them think they’re special)
Diversity
- Increases group conflict – especially early on. This lowers group morale and incr dropout rates
- High levels of effective leadership/hr skills to keep group on task is required to offset the conflicts
- Difficult in the short run, but may increase open-mindedness and creativity in the long run
Group Decision-Making
Strengths:
- Groups generate more info and knowledge
- Decisions are more accurate
- More creative
- Groups increase diversity of views, equals more approaches and alternatives
- Groups have increased acceptance of a solution
- When members participate in decision making, they are more likely to enthusiastically support it and encourage others
Weaknesses
- Group decisions are time consuming, less efficient than individual decision making
- Conformity pressures
- Group discussion can be dominated by one or a few members
- Ambiguous responsibility makes it unclear who is responsible
Virtual Teams
More effective when:
- regular meeting routines were developed to facilitate collaboration
- Encouraged to review progress of their own, and other groups
- High levels of communication and cohesion
- Leader efforts to build personal, inspirational relationships
Groupthink
- Occurs when a group is more focused on performance than on learning, and when there is a clear group identity that members want to keep and protect
- Suppresses minority opinions
- Causes individuals to be more confident about their decisions
- Encourages conformity
Minimize Groupthink:
- Monitor group size. Keep at 10 members or lower bc people feel less personal responsibility in groups over 10
- Encourage group leaders to be impartial – seek input from members before expressing their own ideas
- Appoint one member to play devil’s advocate
- Use exercises that encourage discussion of diverse alternatives

14 Conflict and Negotiation traditional view of conflict - all conflict was bad and to be avoided. Conflict was viewed negatively and discussed with such terms as violence, destruction, and irrationality to reinforce its negative connotation. 1930s and 1940s. Short sighted view.
- dysfunctional outcome resulting from poor communication, a lack of openness and trust between people, and the failure of managers to be responsive to the needs and aspirations of their employees. interactionist view of conflict - encourages conflict on the grounds that a harmonious, peaceful, tranquil, and cooperative group is prone to becoming static, apathetic, and unresponsive to needs for change and innovation. Incomplete view.
- Major contribution: recognizing that a minimal level of conflict can help keep a group viable, self-critical, and creative
Manage conflict view – recognizes conflict is inevitable, focuses on productive conflict resolution to minimize disruptive influence
- minimize the negative effects of conflict by focusing on preparing people for conflicts, developing resolution strategies, and facilitating open discussion.
Types of conflict functional conflict - supports the goals of the group and improves its performance and is, thus, a constructive form of conflict.

dysfunctional conflict - hinders group performance

Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the work
- Low to moderate levels of task conflict can be functional
- usually just as disruptive as relationship conflicts
- moderate levels of task conflict in the early development stage could increase creativity in groups
- Low to moderate levels of task conflict stimulate discussion of ideas
- high levels of task conflict decreased team performance
- task conflicts were unrelated to performance in the later stages of group development
- task conflicts relate positively to creativity and innovation only when all members share the same goals and have high levels of trust, but they are not related to routine task performance
- task conflicts sometimes escalate into relationship conflicts
- Longer-term studies show that all conflicts reduce trust, respect, and cohesion in groups, which reduces their long-term viability.

Relationship conflict focuses on interpersonal relationships. Almost always dysfunctional.
- hostilities in relationship conflicts increase personality clashes and decrease mutual understanding
- when levels of relationship conflict are high, increases in task conflict are consistently related to lower levels of team performance and team member satisfaction

Process conflict relates to how the work gets done.
- low levels of process conflict can be functional

Conflict Process conflict process has five stages: potential opposition or incompatibility, cognition and personalization, intentions, behavior, and outcomes.

Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility
The appearance of conditions that create opportunities for conflict to arise. These conditions need not lead directly to conflict, but one of them is necessary if conflict is to surface. 3 types of conditions:
- communication - differing word connotations, jargon, insufficient exchange of information, and noise in the communication channel are all barriers to communication and potential antecedent conditions to conflict. o the potential for conflict increases when either too little or too much communication takes place
- structure - includes variables such as size of the group, degree of specialization in the tasks assigned to group members, jurisdictional clarity, member–goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems, and the degree of dependence between groups. o Size and specialization stimulate conflict – larger and highly specialized groups have increased levels of conflict o Tenure and conflict are inversely related – conflict is high when group members are younger and turnover is high o Greater responsibility ambiguity means greater conflict o jurisdictional ambiguities increase intergroup fighting for control of resources and territory. o Diversity of goals among groups is also a major source of conflict. o Reward systems create conflict when one member’s gain comes at another’s expense o if a group is dependent on another group, or if interdependence allows one group to gain at another’s expense, opposing forces are stimulated.
- Personal variables – personality, emotions, values o people high in the personality traits of disagreeableness, neuroticism, or self-monitoring are prone to more conflict, and react poorly to it

Stage II: Cognition and Personalization
The parties must become aware of the antecedent to know that a conflict now exists.
Stage II is where the conflict gets defined and parties decide what the conflict is about. Defining the conflict is important bc it determines the possible settlements.
- Perceived conflict – one or more parties become aware that potential for conflict exists
- Felt conflict – emotional involvement in a conflict that causes anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or hostility
Stage III: Intentions
Intentions are decisions to act in a given way.
Conflict Handling Intentions:
- competing (assertive and uncooperative) o when issues are important, when unpopular actions need to be implemented (in cost cutting, enforcement of unpopular rules, discipline), when the issue is vital to the organization’s welfare and you know you’re right, and when others are taking advantage of noncompetitive behavior.
- collaborating (assertive and cooperative) o to find an integrative solution when both sets of concerns are too important to be compromised, when your objective is to learn, when you want to merge insights from people with different perspectives or gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus, and when you need to work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship.
- avoiding (unassertive and uncooperative) o when an issue is trivial or symptomatic of other issues, when more important issues are pressing, when you perceive no chance of satisfying your concerns, when potential disruption outweighs the benefits of resolution, when people need to cool down and regain perspective, when gathering information supersedes immediate decision, and when others can resolve the conflict more effectively.
- accommodating (unassertive and cooperative) o when you find you’re wrong, when you need to learn or show reasonableness, when you should allow a better position to be heard, when issues are more important to others than to yourself, when you want to satisfy others and maintain cooperation, when you can build social credits for later issues, when you are outmatched and losing (to minimize loss), when harmony and stability are especially important, and when employees can develop by learning from mistakes.
- compromising (midrange on both assertiveness and cooperativeness) – each party intends to give up something o when goals are important but not worth the effort of potential disruption of more assertive approaches, when opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals, when you seek temporary settlements to complex issues, when you need expedient solutions under time pressure, and as a backup when collaboration or competition is unsuccessful.
Stage IV: Behavior
This is where conflicts become visible. Overt behavior. Process of interaction.
The behavior stage includes the statements, actions, and reactions made by the conflicting parties, usually as overt attempts to implement their own intentions. Parties will attempt to resolve or stimulate the conflict.
Conflict Resolution Techniques:
Problem solving - Face-to-face meeting of the conflicting parties for the purpose of identifying the problem and resolving it through open discussion.
Superordinate goals - Creating a shared goal that cannot be attained without the cooperation of each of the conflicting parties.
Expansion of resources - When a conflict is caused by the scarcity of a resource (for example, money, promotion, opportunities, office space), expansion of the resource can create a win-win solution.
Avoidance - Withdrawal from or suppression of the conflict.
Smoothing - Playing down differences while emphasizing common interests between the conflicting parties.
Compromise - Each party to the conflict gives up something of value.
Authoritative command - Management uses its formal authority to resolve the conflict and then communicates its desires to the parties involved.
Altering the human variable - Using behavioral change techniques such as human relations training to alter attitudes and behaviors that cause conflict.
Altering the structural variables - Changing the formal organization structure and the interaction patterns of conflicting parties through job redesign, transfers, creation of coordinating positions, and the like.
Conflict Stimulation Techniques:
Communication - Using ambiguous or threatening messages to increase conflict levels.
Bringing in outsiders - Adding employees to a group whose backgrounds, values, attitudes, or managerial styles differ from those of present members.
Restructuring the organization - Realigning work groups, altering rules and regulations, increasing interdependence, and making similar structural changes to disrupt the status quo.
Appointing a devil’s advocate - Designating a critic to purposely argue against the majority positions held by the group.
Stage V: Outcomes
Results of the conflict process will either increase or decrease group performance, so it will either be a functional or dysfunctional outcome
Open discussion allows groups to work toward a mutually acceptable solution.
Managers need to emphasize shared interests in resolving conflicts
* Groups with cooperative conflict styles and a strong underlying identification to the overall group goals are more effective than groups with a competitive style.

Functional Outcomes:
Conflict is an antidote for groupthink.
Conflict can improve the quality of decision making
Groups whose members have different interests tend to produce higher-quality solutions to a variety of problems
*Heterogeneity/diversity among group and organization members can increase creativity, improve the quality of decisions, and facilitate change by enhancing member flexibility.

Dysfunctional Outcomes:
Reduce group effectiveness
Info sharing decreases
Extreme conflict can stop functionality
Poor communication, reduced group cohesion, subordination of group goals, intergroup fighting
ALL conflict reduces group trust and satisfaction
Negotiation
A process that occurs when two or more parties decide how to allocate scarce resources.
There are two general approaches to negotiation—distributive bargaining and integrative bargaining.
- distributive bargaining operates under zero-sum conditions. Short term, win-lose situation with low information sharing and a goal to get as much as possible. o most widely cited example of distributive bargaining is labor–management negotiations over wages o the best thing you can do is make the first offer, and make it aggressive o tactic: revealing a deadline
- integrative bargaining operates under the assumption that one or more of the possible settlements can create a win–win solution. Higher info sharing, long-term, more concerned on the interests. o preferable to distributive bargaining o Do not compromise. Compromising reduces pressure to bargain integratively.
Ways to achieve better outcomes:
Bargain in teams.
Put more issues on the table. “Log rolling” gets better outcomes than if the issues are negotiated individually
Focus on the issues rather than the bottom line, understand the “why.”
6 Steps of Negotiation Process:
(1) preparation and planning
a. Determine (for both sides) BATNA - best alternative to a negotiated agreement
(2) definition of ground rules – exchange initial proposals or demands
(3) clarification and justification – educating and informing the other side
(4) bargaining and problem solving – hash out the agreement, both sides make concessions
(5) closure and implementation – formalize the agreement, develop procedures to implement and maintain

4 Factors Influence Negotiation Effectiveness:
1. Personality
a. Agreeable, extroverted negotiators are NOT good at distributive bargaining
b. The BEST distributive bargainer is a disagreeable introvert
c. People highly interested in having positive relationships with people are terrible negotiators
2. Moods/Emotion
a. In distributive negotiations negotiators in a position of power or equal status who show anger negotiate better outcomes
b. for those in a less powerful position, displaying anger leads to worse outcomes
c. individuals who experienced more anxiety about a negotiation used more deceptions
d. anxious negotiators expect lower outcomes from negotiations, respond to offers more quickly, and exit the bargaining process more quickly, which leads them to obtain worse outcomes.
e. In integrative negotiations positive moods and emotions appear to lead to more integrative agreements
3. Culture
a. in high power-distance countries, those in positions of power might exercise more restraint
b. use of question-and-answer methods of negotiation are associated with superior negotiation outcomes
4. Gender
a. men have been found to negotiate better outcomes than women
3rd party negotiations – use of a mediator, arbitrator, or conciliator
- conflict intensity can’t be too high, most effective under moderate conflict. To be effective the mediator must be perceived as neutral and noncoercive.
- Conciliator - A trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the negotiator and the opponent. Engage in fact-finding, interpret messages, and persuade disputants to develop agreements.

Chapter 10 – WORK TEAMS
Why Have Teams Become So Popular?
Teams are more flexible and responsive to changing events than traditional departments or other forms of permanent groupings. They can quickly assemble, deploy, refocus, and disband.
Teams facilitate employee participation in operating decisions.
Teams are an effective means for management to democratize organizations and increase employee motivation.
Differences Between Groups and Teams
A work group is a group that interacts primarily to share information and make decisions to help each member perform within his or her area of responsibility.
- have no need or opportunity to engage in collective work that requires joint effort
- performance is merely the summation of each group member’s individual contribution
- NO positive synergy that would create an overall level of performance greater than the sum of the inputs.
- Random and varied skills, individual accountability, goal to share information
A work team generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. The individual efforts result in a level of performance greater than the sum of those individual inputs.
- Collective performance, positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, skills are complementary

Types of Teams
1. problem-solving teams - 5 to 12 hourly employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving quality, efficiency, and the work environment. Rarely have the authority to unilaterally implement any of their suggestions.
2. Self-managed work teams - groups of employees (typically 10 to 15 in number) who perform highly related or interdependent jobs and take on many of the responsibilities of their former supervisors.
a. these tasks are planning and scheduling work, assigning tasks to members, making operating decisions, taking action on problems, and working with suppliers and customers.
b. Fully self-managed work teams even select their own members and evaluate each other’s performance
c. Supervisory positions take on decreased importance and are sometimes even eliminated.
d. Self-managed teams do not typically manage conflicts well. When disputes arise, members stop cooperating and power struggles ensue, which leads to lower group performance.
e. have higher absenteeism and turnover rates
3. cross-functional teams - Employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task.
a. are an effective means of allowing people from diverse areas within or even between organizations to exchange information, develop new ideas, solve problems, and coordinate complex projects
b. Their early stages of development are often long, as members learn to work with diversity and complexity. It takes time to build trust and teamwork
4. virtual teams - use computer technology to tie together physically dispersed members in order to achieve a common goal.
a. suffer because there is less social rapport and direct interaction among members
b. better at sharing unique information (information held by individual members but not the entire group), but they tend to share less information overall.
c. To be effective: trust must be established, team progress monitored closely, efforts and products of the team need to be publicized throughout the organization so they don’t feel invisible.

Creating Effective Teams
Organize the key components of effective teams into THREE general categories:
1. Resources/Contextual (4)
a. Adequate Resources
i. A scarcity of resources directly reduces the ability of a team to perform its job effectively and achieve its goals. ii. support includes timely information, proper equipment, adequate staffing, encouragement, and administrative assistance.
b. Leadership and Structure
i. Agreeing on the specifics of work and how they fit together to integrate individual skills requires leadership and structure, either from management or from the team members themselves. ii. Leadership is especially important in multiteam systems, in which different teams coordinate their efforts to produce a desired outcome. iii. Teams that establish shared leadership by effectively delegating it are more effective than teams with a traditional single-leader structure.
c. Climate of Trust
i. trust among team members facilitates cooperation, reduces the need to monitor each others’ behavior, and bonds members around the belief that others on the team won’t take advantage of them ii. trust is the foundation of leadership. It allows a team to accept and commit to its leader’s goals and decisions.
d. Performance Eval and Reward Systems
i. Group-based appraisals, profit sharing, gainsharing, small-group incentives, and other system modifications can reinforce team effort and commitment. ii. Promotions, pay raises, and other forms of recognition should be given to individuals who work effectively as team members by training new colleagues, sharing information, helping resolve team conflicts, and mastering needed new skills.
2. Composition
a. Abilities of Members
i. a less intelligent leader can neutralize the effect of a high-ability team
b. Personality
i. Conscientious people are good at backing up other team members, and they’re also good at sensing when their support is truly needed. ii. teams that rate higher on mean levels of conscientiousness and openness to experience tend to perform better, and the minimum level of team member agreeableness also matters
c. Allocating Roles
i. Put your most able, experienced, and conscientious workers in the most central roles in a team
d. Diversity
i. Diversity in function, education, and expertise are positively related to group performance ii. Proper leadership also improves performance – leaders should provide an inspirational common goal to keep teams creative iii. turnover will be greater among those with dissimilar experiences because communication is more difficult and conflict is more likely iv. Increased conflict makes membership less attractive, so employees are more likely to quit
v. the losers in a power struggle are more apt to leave voluntarily or be forced out
e. Size of Teams
i. The most effective teams have 5-9 members. Use the smallest # that can perform the task ii. Excess members cause a decrease in cohesiveness, communication and accountability. Social loafing increases.
f. Member Flexibility
g. Member Preferences
3. Process Variable – member commitment, team goals, minimize loafing
a. Common Purpose
i. Effective teams begin by analyzing the team’s mission, developing goals to achieve that mission, and creating strategies for achieving the goals. ii. Teams should also agree on whether their goal is to learn about and master a task or simply to perform the task iii. having all employees on a team strive for the same type of goal is important iv. Effective teams also show reflexivity, meaning they reflect on and adjust their master plan when necessary.
b. Specific Goals
c. Team Efficacy
i. To INCREASE efficacy: help team achieve small successes to build confidence, provide training to improve member’s interpersonal and technical skills ii. Effective teams share accurate mental models—organized mental representations of the key elements within a team’s environment that team members share
d. Conflict Levels
e. Social Loafing
Decide when to use individuals instead of teams.
Teamwork takes more time and often more resources than individual work.
Teams have increased communication demands, conflicts to manage, and meetings to run.
Simple tasks that don’t require diverse input are probably better left to individuals.
Using teams makes sense when there is interdependence among tasks—the success of the whole depends on the success of each one, and the success of each one depends on the success of the others.

The MOST effective team will: have adequate resources, effective leadership, a climate of trust, and a performance evaluation and reward system that reflects team contributions have individuals with technical expertise as well as problem-solving, decision-making, and interpersonal skills and the right traits, especially conscientiousness and openness. be small—with fewer than 10 people of diverse backgrounds have members who fill role demands and who prefer to be part of a group have members who believe in the team’s capabilities and are committed to a common plan and purpose, an accurate shared mental model of what is to be accomplished, specific team goals, a manageable level of conflict, and a minimal degree of social loafing.

Chapter 12 – LEADERSHIP