Study Guide: Final Exam
Concentrate your studies in the following areas. Questions for the Final Exam will come principally from this material.
Lutgens and Tarbuck Textbook:

Earthquakes and Structures (Chapter 6)

* Know the definition of an earthquake (pg. 190). * Know the difference between the focus and epicenter of an earthquake. Which is located at the source of the earthquake? Which is located on the surface of the earth directly above the source? * Understand the concept of elastic rebound. What is it? How are earthquakes produced via elastic rebound? * Know the three basic types of seismic waves * Body waves - P waves (push/pull-- motion parallel - travel through solids/liquids/gas) * Body waves - S waves ("shake" -- motion perpendicular - travel through solids -- slower velocity than P waves) * surface waves (complex motion -- causes greatest destruction -- * ). What is the particle motion in each type of wave (e.g., particles move parallel to the direction of travel in P waves)? Which type of wave travels the fastest? Which type of wave is the slowest? Which type of wave arrives first at a seismic station? Which type of wave is the last to arrive at a seismic station? Which type of wave causes the most damage? Know which mediums each type of wave will move through (e.g., S waves will only move through solids). * Know the difference between a magnitude scale and an intensity scale.
- Intensity: measure of the degree of earthquake shaking at a given locale based on the amount of damage
- Magnitude - estimates the amount of energy released at the source of earthquake
- What is the most popular magnitude scale used today? (Richter scale) * The Mercalli Intensity Scale rates the structural damage due to an earthquake. (was developed using Cali building as standard) ( the drawback of intensity scales is that destruction may not be a true measure aof the earthquakes actual severity) What is the range of numerical values attached to this scale? * Know the factors that affect the amount of damage caused by an earthquake. * What is liquefaction? * Know the key compositional layers of the earth What is the general composition of the mantle? What element predominates in the core?
- core (inner and outer)
- mantle ( upper and lower) -- composed of high density rock SILICA -- 1800 miles
- CRUST - lithosphere (surface is the crust) -- low density rock - thin, brittle, solid, -- 2 miles * Know the definitions of lithosphere and asthenosphere. * Know the difference in composition between oceanic and continental crust. * Where is the crust of the earth thickest (typically)? Where is it the thinnest? * Know (generally) how the earth’s magnetic field is generated. In what layer of the earth do scientists believe the magnetic field is generated? * What is a fault? (fractures in rocks alonf which appreciable discpalcement has taken place) What are the different types of faults (i.e., normal, reverse, thrust, and strike-slip)?

- dip-slip: hanging wall/foot wall * normal fault: footwall (up) -- hanging wall (down) * - reverse and thrust faults: footwall (down) --- hangin wall (up) -- strong compressional forces
- strike-slip faults: right lateral/left lateral * tranform fault: large strike slip fault that cuts through the lithosphere
- San Andreas Fault System (right lateral fault) * What is an accretionary wedge? * a chaotic accumulation

Igneous Activity (Chapter 7)

* What two principal factors affect the viscosity of magma/lava? Which is more viscous, basaltic or granitic magma? Why?
- composition
- temperature
- dissolved gases * What two principal factors determine the nature or explosive potential of a volcanic eruption? * higher silica content * lower silica content * basaltic lavas are hotter and less viscous than andesitic * What are the most abundant gases emitted during volcanic eruptions? * Know the differences between pahoehoe and aa lava flows. * Be able to define the following: lava flows, lava tubes, pyroclastic materials, and volatiles. * Know the different types of pyroclastic material (e.g., ash, dust, lapilli, cinders, blocks, and bombs). * Know the three different types of volcanoes
- shield: broad -- Mauna Loa
- cinder cone -- built from ejected lava. sttep slope angle. small size. frequently occur in groups
- composite cone -- large classsic shaped volcano. composed of interbedded lava flow and pyroclastic debris. most violent type of activity (Mt. Vesuvius)
ALERT: ANDESITIC DESCRIBES THE AVERAGE ROCK COMPOSITION FOR A LARGE COMPOSITE CONE

Know the basic morphology (i.e., shape) and composition (i.e., type of magma or volcanic material) of each. For example, cinder cones are relatively small, steep-sided (30–40 degree slopes) volcanoes composed of pyroclastic material. Also, be able to give one or two examples of each type of volcano. For instance, Mount Fuji in Japan is a composite volcano. * Which type of volcano produces the most violent eruptions? compsitE cone * Be able to define the following: pipe/conduit,vent, crater, parasitic cone, fumarole, nuee ardentes, lahar, and caldera. * Be able to name and describe the various types of intrusive igneous bodies (i.e., dikes, sills, laccoliths, batholiths, and stocks).
- BATHOLITH IS THE LARGEST INTRUSIVE Also, note the shape (tabular vs. massive) and orientation (discordant vs. concordant) of each. For example, a sill is tabular and concordant. Which is the largest of the igneous intrusive bodies? * Why does magma tend to rise towards the earth’s surface (think in terms of density)? * Know how volcanic island arcs and continental volcanic arcs are formed. Give some examples of volcanic island arcs and continental volcanic arcs in the world. What type of magma is typically generated during formation of these arcs? * What is the Ring of Fire? What ocean does the Ring of Fire encircle? * What is decompression melting (at divergent plate boundaries)? What type of magma is formed at divergent plate boundaries? * Be able to define the following: mantle plume and hot spot.

Oceans (Chapter 9)

* Approximately how much of the earth’s surface is covered by oceans? * Know the four main ocean basins. Which is the largest? Which is the smallest? Which has the greatest average depth? Which is the shallowest? * What is salinity?
TOTAL AMOUNT OF SOLID MATERIAL DISSOLVED IN WATER (%)
What is the average salinity of seawater in percentage (i.e., parts per hundred)? What is the principal salt dissolved in seawater? * Name two sources of sea salt. * How does precipitation affect the surface salinity of the ocean? How does evaporation affect the surface salinity of the ocean? Where in the world (generally) are high and low surface salinities found? * What is the thermocline? The thermocline is typically not found in high latitude seas. Why? Conversely, why is the thermocline typically well-defined at low latitudes? * What is the definition of density? What two factors affect seawater density? As temperature increases, what happens to seawater density? As salinity increases, what happens to seawater density? * What is the pycnocline? Why is the pycnocline absent at high latitudes? Why is it well-defined at low latitudes? * What are the three provinces of the ocean floor (continental margin, deep-ocean basin, and oceanic [mid-ocean] ridge)? * Know the differences between passive and active continental margins. * Be able to name and describe (generally) the three features of a continental margin (continental shelf, continental slope, and continental rise). * What are submarine canyons, where do they form, and how do they form? * What are turbidity currents? Why are they sometimes called density currents? What are turbidites and why do they form graded beds? * What are deep-ocean trenches and where do they form? * Be able to define the following: abyssal plains, seamounts, guyots, and oceanic plateaus. * Know the types of seafloor sediments (terrigenous, biogenous, and hydrogenous). Be able to define each. * What are the differences between siliceous ooze and calcareous ooze? What are manganese nodules and how do they form? * What are black smokers? Where do they typically form? What kinds of minerals do they deposit?

Restless Ocean (Chapter 10)

* What is a gyre? * Describe the Coriolis effect. Which way are currents deflected in the Northern Hemisphere because of the Coriolis effect? Which way are they deflected in the Southern Hemisphere? * Surface currents redistribute heat around the globe. Warm surface waters tend to move poleward where their heat is lost to the atmosphere. On the other hand, cold surface currents tend to move toward the equator where they are warmed by the tropical air. See Figure 10.2 on page 323 for a graphic representation of this. Notice, for example, the cold California current (along the U.S. west coast) moving toward the equator and the warm Gulf Stream current (along the U.S. east coast) moving toward the pole. * What is the source of energy for surface ocean currents? * Describe thermohaline circulation (generally). What causes thermohaline circulation to happen (Refer to the paragraph at the bottom of page 326 that begins “Most water involved in deep-ocean currents…”)? * Define the following ocean wave characteristics: wave height, wavelength, wave period, and fetch. * What are the height, length, and period of an ocean wave dependent upon (there are three things: see page 329 under “Wave Characteristics”)? * What is wave base? * In the surf zone, at what depth does wave action cease? What is surf? * Be able to describe/define the following: wave refraction, beach drift, and longshore current. * Know the different types of wave erosional features (i.e., wave-cut cliffs, wave-cut platforms, marine terraces, sea arches, and sea stacks). Be able to describe each. * Know the different types of coastal depositional features (i.e., spits, bars, tombolos, barrier islands, and baymouth bars). Be able to describe each. * What are some examples of hard stabilization? What are some alternatives to hard stabilization? * What causes the tides on earth? Which has a greater influence on earth tides, the sun or the moon? Why? * Know the difference between spring tides and neap tides. Which produces the greatest daily tidal range?

Heating the Atmosphere (Chapter 11)

* Know the difference between weather and climate. * What two gases dominate in the earth’s atmosphere? Which is the most abundant? * What are some of the variable components in the atmosphere? What is an aerosol? Name three ways aerosols are significant. What is ozone? What is the chemical formula of ozone (hint: it is composed of three oxygen atoms)? What type of radiation does ozone absorb? * What is atmospheric pressure? How does it change with increasing altitude? * Name and describe (generally: in terms of height above the surface and temperature change with altitude) the four layers of the atmosphere. See Figure 11.10 on page 361 for assistance. In what layer do most storms and clouds occur? * What is the tropopause? * What is the difference between rotation and revolution of the earth? * You must know and understand all of the material dealing with the earth’s seasons on pages 363–366. In particular, know the following: the reason for earth’s seasons, when in the calendar year the solstices and equinoxes occur in each hemisphere (e.g., the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere occurs on June 21 or 22), what the inclination of the earth’s axis is (in degrees), and how the length of daylight changes throughout the year in each hemisphere (e.g., during the summer solstice, the days are the longest; during the winter solstice, the days are the shortest; and during the equinoxes, the days are 12 hours long). * Be able to name and describe the three mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction, convection, and radiation. Which one is the mechanism by which the sun transmits its energy to earth? * When radiation from the sun enters earth’s atmosphere, it can be absorbed, transmitted, or reflected/scattered. Be able to describe (generally) each of these (i.e., absorption, transmission, reflection, and scattering). What is albedo? * Be able to describe the greenhouse effect. What are the two most important heat absorbing gases in the atmosphere? * Know how to calculate daily mean temperature, daily range, and monthly mean. * Be able to describe how land and water, altitude, geographic position, and cloud cover affect atmospheric temperature.

Moisture, Clouds, and Precipitation (Chapter 12)

* Know (generally) what latent heat is. See the section entitled “Latent Heat” on page 388 for more details. * Be able to describe the following in terms of phase change and energy absorption or release: evaporation, condensation, sublimation, and deposition. For instance, evaporation is the phase change from liquid to gas. During evaporation, energy is absorbed. * Understand the following terms as they relate to humidity: saturation, vapor pressure, and relative humidity. How does relative humidity change with the addition of moisture to the air? How does it change with the subtraction of moisture? How does it change with changes in temperature (both increasing and decreasing temperature)? * What is the dew-point temperature? * You do not need to know all of the particulars of adiabatic cooling and condensation. This material is beyond the scope of the course. * What are the three processes that lift air in the atmosphere (i.e., orographic lifting, frontal wedging, and convergence)? Be able to describe each (generally). * You do not need to know the types of stability (e.g., absolute stability, absolute instability, conditional instability as presented on pages 400–401. This material is beyond the scope of the present course. However, you do need to know these general principles: * Air that wants to rise in the atmosphere is considered unstable, and air that resists rising in the atmosphere is considered stable. * As air rises, it expands and cools. At some point during its ascent and cooling, the air will reach its saturation point (i.e., 100% relative humidity), at which time condensation and cloud formation will occur. * Air becomes unstable when it is heated from below by the sun, when some mechanism causes the air to be forcibly uplifted, and/or when air converges at the surface. * As air descends, it compresses and warms. * Fog, temperature inversions, layered clouds, and light to moderate precipitation are associated with stable air. * Thunderstorms, clouds with considerable vertical development, and heavy precipitation are associated with unstable air. * Understand the section entitled “Stability and Daily Weather” on page 354. * Name and describe the three basic forms of clouds (i.e., cirrus, cumulus, and stratus). Name and describe the three levels of clouds (i.e., high, middle, and low). Be able to construct cloud-type names based upon form and level. For instance, a globular cloud form at the middle level would be known as an altocumulus cloud. * What is special about the cumulonimbus cloud? What is associated with the cumulonimbus cloud? Why does it have an “anvil head”? * Know the definition of fog. * Be able to name and describe the various types of fog (i.e., radiation fog, advection fog, upslope fog, steam fog, and frontal/precipitation fog).

Atmosphere in Motion (Chapter 13)

* What is air pressure? * What is the standard sea level pressure in millibars (mb)? What is the standard sea level pressure in inches of mercury? * What causes wind to form? What is the force that drives wind? * What are isobars? What is pressure gradient? What kinds of pressure gradient and wind speeds are evidenced by closely spaced isobars? What kinds of pressure gradient and wind speeds are evidenced by widely spaced isobars? * Be able to define the Coriolis effect (generally). Winds are deflected in what direction in the Northern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect? Winds are deflected in what direction in the Southern Hemisphere due to the Coriolis effect? Where is the Coriolis effect strongest? Where is it the weakest? * What are geostrophic winds? Be able to define these winds in terms of Coriolis effect and pressure gradient force (see page 427 and Figure 13.9). * What is the jet stream? * Know the difference between cyclones (low-pressure systems) and anticyclones (high-pressure systems). In which direction (clockwise or counterclockwise) do winds travel around cyclones in the North Hemisphere? What about in the Southern Hemisphere? In which direction do winds travel around anticyclones in the Northern Hemisphere? What about in the Southern Hemisphere? Do cyclone winds blow inward (i.e., into the center) or outward? What about anticyclone winds? Figure 13.12 can help you answer these questions. * Based on the section entitled “Weather Generalizations About Highs and Lows,” know the following basic principles: * High-pressure systems are usually associated with: * Upper-level wind convergence. * Fair or clear weather. * Descending air. * High barometric pressures. * Low-pressure systems are usually associated with: * Upper-level wind divergence. * Cloudy or stormy weather. * Ascending air. * Low barometric pressures. * Know the basic global wind patterns as detailed in SmartFigure 13.17. Know where the polar easterlies, trade winds, and westerlies are located (in terms of latitude) and from what direction they blow. For instance, the trade winds blow from the east and are located roughly between the equator and 30oN and 30oS latitude. * Know how and when sea breezes and land breezes form. Refer to Figure 13.20 for assistance. * What are Chinook winds? What is the Santa Ana?

Severe Weather (Chapter 14)

* What is an air mass? * An air mass is defined by its source region (i.e., where it formed geographically) and the surface over which it formed (i.e., land or water). Know the three source regions (polar [P], arctic [A], and tropical [T]) and the surfaces over which air masses form (continental [c] and maritime [m]). Be able to use the shorthand presented in the textbook. For instance, a mT air mass is one that formed in a tropical source region (T) over water (m). Also, know the temperature and humidity characteristics of the various air masses. For example, a mT air mass is characterized by warm and humid air, whereas a cP air mass is characterized by cold and dry air. * Which air mass is most influential in the southeastern U.S.? Which is most influential in the Pacific Northwest of the U.S.? Which is most influential in the southwestern U.S.? See Figure 14.3 for assistance. * Be able to define (generally) the following: warm front, cold front, stationary front, and occluded front. Know the map symbols for each type of front (e.g., warm fronts are depicted by red lines with red semicircles on one side, cold fronts by blue lines with blue triangles on one side, etc.). Know the cloud types associated with each type of front. See Figures 14.6, 14.8, 14.1, and 14.11 for assistance. Finally, know where the precipitation typically occurs with each type of front (e.g., with cold fronts, the precipitation typically occurs at or near the frontal boundary; with warm fronts, the precipitation typically occurs ahead of the frontal boundary; etc.). * What is a midlatitude cyclone? In what direction do they typically travel? Know and understand the morphology of a midlatitude cyclone as depicted in Figure 14.11 and 14.12. * What is a thunderstorm? * Know and be able to describe (generally) the three stages of a thunderstorm. In which stage does the heaviest precipitation occur? In which stage do updrafts dominate? * Know the following tornado basics: * Tornadoes typically form in association with supercell thunderstorms, mesocyclones, and cumulonimbus clouds. * They occur along cold fronts. * They produce extremely high-speed winds. * They can occur in association with heavy rainfall and hail. * They occur frequently in the springtime. * They commonly strike the U.S. Midwest and Great Plains. * Know the basic steps of tornado formation. See Figure 14.23 for assistance. * Understand the difference between tornado watches and warnings. * What are hurricanes called in the western Pacific? What are they called in the Indian Ocean? * Be able to define the following terms as related to hurricanes: eye and eye wall. * Know and be able to define the stages in hurricane development (i.e., tropical disturbance, tropical depression, tropical storm, hurricane). * Know the following hurricane basics: * Hurricanes are fueled by latent heat as water vapor condenses. * They develop in the late summer months over warm ocean waters. * They need warm, moist air in order to form and maintain intensity. * They typically form between 5o and 20o N latitude. * They contain cumulonimbus clouds. * They produce very strong winds and heavy rains. * They are extremely low-pressure systems. * What three conditions diminish hurricane intensity? * What is storm surge?
Morris Textbook (Chapters 8–9): * Be able to name and describe (generally) the various geologic evidences of a young earth (see list on pg. 115). * What is bioturbation (generally)? How is it used to demonstrate a young earth? * How does the lack of soil layers in the rock record support a young earth? * Describe polystrate fossils and how these are used by creation scientists to support a young earth. * What is soft-sediment deformation as proposed by young-earth creationists? * Is “missing time” between sedimentary layers a good argument for an old earth? Why or why not? * In order for fossils or sedimentary surface features to be preserved in the rock record, what must occur? * What are the arguments for rapid deposition at Joggins? See table on pg. 104. * Did the Flood deposit most of the world’s fossil bearing rocks? What were erosional and depositional rates like during the Flood? * How is the Mount St. Helens eruption used by creation geologists as evidence of a young earth?