...religious restrictions against debasing the body. Any anatomical dissections that were performed on animals were made to "study" organs in an effort to predict the future and to tell fortunes. *The Stone Age, the earliest known period of human culture, is characterized by the use of small stone tools. Anatomy in Ancient Greece The systematic study of anatomy may have begun in the fifth century B.C ., with the work of two Greek scientists, Alcmaeon (ca. 500 B.C.) in Italy andEmpedocles (ca. 490-430 B.C) in Sicily, where Greek culture and science flourished. Alcmaeon was probably the first person to dissect the human body for research purposes, and he is also given credit for proposing that the brain is the center of intelligence. Empedocles, who believed that the heart distributed life-giving heat to the body, initiated the idea that an ethereal substance called pneuma, which was both life and soul, flowed through the blood vessels. Although such early anatomists were often incorrect, their work was essential to the development of later scientists. Anatomical inferences without dissection continued in Greece with Hippocrates (ca. 460-377 B.C ), who is known as the Father of Medicine. (Many medical students still take the Hippocratic Oath upon graduation from medical school.) He might also be called the Father of Holistic Medicine, since he advocated the...
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...The Placebo Effect For years, scientists have sought to find an explanation for the placebo effect. Although many hypotheses exist, there is no one reason defining why or how the placebos work. Some researchers argue that the phenomenon doesn't even occur; that the placebo effect is merely random mistake and that any improvement said to be caused by a placebo is only a spontaneous recovery in the patient's condition. Other scientists argue that Pavlovian conditioning supports an explanation for the effect: If patients have previously shown improvement from being in a medical setting or from taking medicine, they are conditioned to experience positive effects every time they are in the same situation. A second explanation for the placebo effect is that any drug (or placebo) given to a patient will reduce their stress levels. Because many illnesses begin under high-stress circumstances, or exhibit more extreme symptoms under stressful situations, many of the patient's symptoms are likely to improve. The first question that must be answered before researching into the expectations behind the placebo effect is whether or not the wonder even exists. Certain physicians and scientists claim that "positive effects" of a placebo are, in reality, just the body's natural ways of healing itself and the immune system's defenses kicking in soon after the placebo is taken. Basically, these researchers argue that improvement in a patient's condition after being administered a placebo...
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...NOTHING GONNA CHANGE MY LOVE FOR YOU Lim Siao Hui: Queen Elsa and May Tan Wei Hooi: Narrator 1 and Priest Boo JiaQuan: King Stefan and April Chong Yi Ting: Aurora and 2nd Fairy Yong Lie Jen: Prime Minister and Beast Low Ee Vior: Narrator 2, and 3rd Fairy and June Ng Sin Yee: Scientist, Physician, Teacher, 1st Fairy, Paramour and Woman ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Narrator 1: Back in those days when legends were live and fairy folk wandered round free. There lives a king named Stefan and his beautiful queen, Elsa, and a frog in the pond called Jordan. I mean, the frog was called Jordan. Not the pond, it would be silly. The pond was called Samantha. Anyway, King Stefan and Queen Elsa were in their fairy tale home up on a hill. Their days were peaceful and quiet, all sweetness and light, all gentle and tranquil. Their days were a long horribly dull holidays. SCENE 1 - THE PALACE King Stefan: I’m bored, bored and bored. (Dozes off, reawakens) [SE: SNORING SOUND] I'm bored! Queen Elsa: I know dear, you just said that. King Stefan: I know but I’ll be bored to death soon. Queen Elsa: For God’s sake, don't start that again. There are lots of interesting stuff to do such as taking an PHD degree in University Tunku Abdul Rahman, participate in Chelsea Football Club or you can also command your warriors to have a battle. King Stefan: [SE: GROANING SOUND] No, I want something...
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...Many of Descartes peers who were also contemporaries disagreed with this ethical standpoint on how to treat animals. John Locke, an English physician, philosopher, and contemporary, openly disagreed and stated that humans should not conduct these painful biomedical experiments on animals, and that animals contain some human-like characteristics and are capable of feeling pain. Locke believed that conducting these harmful experiments and mistreating animals could potentially lead to a path of also harming humans. Immanuel Kant, another important contemporary, also expressed his views against pointless harmful experiments against animals. He stated that animals were indeed conscious beings which could feel pain and it would be unethical and...
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...Ethical Decision Making Lisa Stanley Grand Canyon University: HLT 305 April 18, 2012 Ethical Decision Making The ethical dilemma here is about a six year old child rush to the hospital for medical treatments. The six year old symptoms consist of convulsions and violent vomiting while attending school. The attending physician made a diagnosis of Meningitis and suggested medical treatment. However, being the parents are both Christian Scientists and decided against medical treatment, but the attending physician initiate medical treatment anyway causing a lawsuit by the parents against the and hospital. Since both parents are Christian Scientists, practicing Christian Science, It would be in the physician best interest to respect their wishes. Christian Science teaches Christian Science teaches that it’s never God's will for anyone to suffer, be sick, or die. Instead, it shows how God is entirely good, and therefore his will for each of us is only health and life (Christian Science, 2012).If I was in the position of the physician and hospital, I would respect the parent’s wishes. We should respect others beliefs and or religions because we never know when we may be put into a position to utilize our religion or belief, and besides it may save us a lawsuit in the long run. In this particular situation Contextual Features would be appropriate for use, because it covers all grounds for the parent’s wishes to be follow among other things that may have hin-dered them...
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...During World War Two, Penicillin became widely available; it was considered a miracle in medicine in the way it defeated deaths by infected wounds, which during the war, was considered the biggest killer (Lewis 1). Just four years after the mass-production of penicillin, new bacteria arose that could resist the antibiotic, thus posing a renewed threat to the world’s population. Ever since the establishment of antibiotics, new “superbugs” have appeared that for years have challenged scientists to keep up with specialized medications to defeat and prevent these intrusive foes. Although most scientists have been effective in their research, newer, and stronger strains of super bacteria continue to appear. Many experts have concluded that the misuse of antibiotics is the main factor for the growth of this naturally occurring phenomenon. Due to incorrect prescriptions, poor drug quality and supply, and user non-compliance, antibiotic resistant bacteria have grown significantly in numbers, and now pose as a major threat to the global population. As humans, we tend to put our trust and our entire lives at the hands of our medical experts. Healthcare is one of the most expensive services in this country, so why should someone have to worry about contracting a superbug infection? Presently, there are many types of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, but the six most common make up the acronym ESKAPE: which are Staphylococcus Aureus, Klebsiella Pneumoniae, Acinetobacter...
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...many different lands built on the foudations laid by Copernicus and Kepler. In Italy, Galileo Galilei assembled an astronomical telescope. Galileo's discoveries caused an uproar. Despite the opposition of the Church, by the early 1600s a new approach to science had emerged, based upon observation and experimentation. Two gaints of this revolution were the Englishman Francis Bacon and the Frenchman Rene Descartes Bacon and Descartes differed in their methods, however. Over time, a step-by-step process of discovery evolved that became known as the scientific method.to explain the data, scientists used reasoning to propose a logical hypothesis, or possible explanation. The 1500s and 1600s saw drmatic changes in many branches of science, especially medicine and chemistry. Medieval physicians relied on the works of the ancient physician Galen. In the early 1540s, French physician Amroise Pare developed a new and more effective ointment for preventing infection. The branch of sciene now called chemistry was in medieval times called alchemy. In the 1600s, English chemist Robert Boyle refined the alchemists' view of chemicals as basic building blocks. As a student in England, Issac Newton devoured the works of the...
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...The history of research ethics begins with the tragic history of research abuse by Nazi doctors during World War II. A total of sixteen German physicians practiced unethical medical experiments on Jews, gypsies, and political prisoners. These experiments on thousands of concentration camp prisoners were done without their consent. Unethical medical experimentation carried out during the Third Reich may be divided into three categories. The first category consists of experiments aimed at facilitating the survival of Axis military personnel. In Dachau, physicians from the German air force and from the German Experimental Institution for Aviation conducted high-altitude experiments, using a low-pressure chamber, to determine the maximum altitude from which crews of damaged aircraft could parachute to safety. Scientists there carried out so-called freezing experiments using prisoners to find an effective treatment for hypothermia. They also used prisoners to test various methods of making seawater drinkable. The second category of experimentation aimed at developing and testing pharmaceuticals and treatment methods for injuries and illnesses which German military and occupation personnel encountered in the field. At the German concentration camps of Sachsenhausen, Dachau, Natzweiler, Buchenwald, and Neuengamme, scientists tested immunization compounds and sera for the prevention and treatment of contagious diseases, including malaria, typhus, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, yellow...
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...“Cancer and cardiovascular disease are two areas in which genomics are showing promise for treatment advances, although challenges remain” (Personalized Medicine: How Will It Affect Patients?, 2011). The second key area would be to use large-scale studies that help link genetic variation to disease. We would also need “a healthcare technology information system that supports integration of clinical data” (Personalized Medicine: A Vision for a Positive Effect on Healthcare). This would enable physicians to keep track of patient care, to tailor treatment. Breast cancer has been a medical concern for years, and we have been doing massive research and testing with the hope of finding better treatments and/or a cure. With advances in genetic medicine and technology, we have been able to develop individualized treatment for women with breast cancer. A woman, who is developing breast cancer, has a greater risk if she inherits a harmful BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutation. “With that discovery in hand, scientists have...
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...Some have never sought medical treatment, and others have received low quality and ineffective treatment. The approach to treating pain and illness depends on the culture and geographical location of the professional appointed to treat pain. In Western Tradition, physicians are considered to be experts on treating illness and pain by utilizing chiropractic manipulation, acupuncture, physical therapy and synthetic medicines. In Navajo tradition, medicine men are the experts on curing illness and pain with religious ceremonies and the use of natural herbs and remedies. Today, the most advanced practice in the health industry is pain management because of the combination of herbal medicines created by Navajos, and synthetic medicines created by Western Scientists. The study of medicine all began in the 1700s when Christopher Columbus came in contact with Indian people in the 1700s. The Indians and Europeans traded food, weapons, shelter and worked together, in a sense, to discover land and natural resources. Shortly after, Small pox, measles, and tuberculosis broke out and killed many people. This encouraged Western Scientists and Navajo People to try and discover cures for infectious diseases. Western Scientists engineered micro-organisms that would search and destroy harmful bacteria and viruses, later to be named “antibiotics“. Navajo people appointed medicine men who learned to prepare and create medicines from natural vegetation. Both proved to be effective. Navajo...
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...boy requiring hospitalization for meningitis. The physician has requested permission to proceed with a specific plan of care. Disagreement on the treatment offered, divorce without shared custody, and religious beliefs create an ethical dilemma. Ethical Dilemma The dilemma consists of medical treatment versus prayer without medical treatment. “Meningitis is a disease caused by the inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord known as the meninges. The inflammation is usually caused by an infection of the fluid surrounding the brain and spinal cord” (Centers for Disease Control and Intervention, 2014). Meningitis can be caused by bacteria, virus, fungi, parasites, or non-infectious means (CDC, 2014). The ethical dilemma here is whether to allow the mother to deny medical care to her son because of religious beliefs, or to proceed with the plan of care the physician recommends, and the father has agreed with. This dilemma is further complicated by the fact that the biological father is not the custodial parent, and is living in another state. The mother is the custodial parent, but not a biological parent. The biological father wants medical treatment for his son, and is seeking another physicians independent council in hopes of justifying the treatment. The mother on the other hand, has made the decision to deny medical care based on her beliefs as a Christian Scientist. Christian Scientists are under the belief that prayer will heal those...
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...effective. “When a new drug or surgical technique is created, society deems it is unethical to use the drug or technique first on human beings because of the possibility that it would cause harm rather than good” (NAP 2011). Due to these kind of comments, is a result of why animal testing is done, so that it is proven it is safe for humans to use. If these drugs or surgical technique were not tested, could potentially put humans at risk and may cause death. Another reason animals are used for testing is because scientists are able to monitor animal’s way easier compared to humans. For instance, scientists are able to feed all the animals the same and are able to closely monitor the animal’s diets throughout the testing. Another reason animals are used for testing because, “Some animals have biological similarities to humans that make them particularly good models for specific disease, for instance rabbits for atherosclerosis or monkeys for polio” (NAP 2011). Other animal’s scientist use are insects, dogs, cats, rabbits, mice, monkeys, and several others. “Mammals are the most essential to researchers because there are the closest to humans in evolutionary terms. Mammals are also used because many diseases they are the closest to humans also effect other mammals too” (NAP 2011). According to the FDA, animals testing is used to measure how much of the drug is absorbed in the blood, how much of the medication is broken down chemically in the body, the toxicity of the product and how it...
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...In 1859, French physician Jean-Baptiste Octave Landry first documented Guillain- Barré syndrome (GBS) as “ascending paralysis.” Guillain- Barré Syndrome is an acute, acquired peripheral neuropathy with a course that is usually monophasic (Hardy, Blum, McCombe, & Reddel, 2011). It is typically triggered after an infection and rarely during vaccination. While there is currently no known cure, there are ways to decrease the severity of the illness. Without treatment, this disorder is fatal and immediately causes paralysis. If a person receives treatment soon after developing GBS, the ailments affects can be less detrimental. Landry worked with ten patients who were diagnosed with GBS. After extensively studying these patients, he was able to...
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...TECHNOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATIONS Introduction Technological transformations occur daily, affecting many groups of people. Two groups of people that were most affected before 1900 were farmers and physicians. The advancement in technology for both farmers and physicians has made impact for all. The advancements for farmers helped them to cover more land, producing more goods and at the same time lowering the cost to take care of a farm. Physicians were able to expand their knowledge and give better care to those in need. The machines and tools were able to give them a better idea of what was wrong with a patient. There were many inventions that helped in making everyday tasks that they were performing daily much easier thus opening the door for more advancement in farming and in the medical field. Farming There were many inventions that impacted the work load of farming, one of which was the steel plow. The steel plow was invented by a blacksmith named John Deere. Farmers were not able to use the old style plow which was made of cast iron and was used more commonly in the eastern states. John Deere decided to make steel plows because the cast iron plows would easily break due to the soil being rich and thick in the Great Plains. Farmers were now spending more time harvesting land instead of fixing the cast iron plows. The steel plow had a wooden handle and was attached to a horse. The plow would dig the soil and turn it over in preparation for planting...
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...used. Attitudes towards testing on animals scoped from absolute acceptance to absolute rejection and this seemed to have logical explanation. Both sides had strong arguments. For instance, involving animals in research has a positive effect, resulting in increasing of human health standards. Experience obtained from working with animals helped scientists to improve their general knowledge of mechanisms of how do living organisms function. On the other hand, the remaining scientists claimed that methods used to obtain those results were not only cruel and inhumane, but the majority of them could have been done using non-animal methods. This essay will prove that animal experimentation is a necessity, having led to numerous breakthroughs, it will also provide information about animal testing and alternatives that are now used to make the use of animals less harmful. Animal experimentation refers to any type of experimental procedures carried out on living animals. Using living animals in research started long ago, in ancient times. The main aim was to satisfy the curiosity of scientists in anatomy. Ibn al-Nafis, arab physician, who was interested in medicine and anatomy, was first to use animals for his experiments. In 1242 he demonstrated the circulation of blood in mammals. Nowadays there is a variety of applications of animal testing. This include basic and applied biomedical research, uses for education, for testing drugs, products, biological and chemical substances...
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