...becoming a parent. As each new unpredictable day arises, uncertainty fills the air, constantly swarming one’s emotions and daily interactions. While factors of uncertainty revolve around routinely aspects, Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese (1975) narrowed their focus and devised a theory specifically on uncertainty and interpersonal communication. By studying how human communication is used to gain knowledge and create understanding, Berger and Calabrese unveiled the first generation to reducing uncertainty in interpersonal communication (Griffin, 2011). Known as the Uncertainty Reduction Theory (Berger, 1975), its original form focused on how strangers communicate, noting that the “beginnings of personal relationships are usually fraught with uncertainties” (Griffin, 2011, 130). By means of intensive research and ultimately, complete comprehension, it is evident that the Uncertainty Reduction Theory helps scholars correlate uncertainty with interpersonal communication, thus advancing to significant predictions on how people behave when they are uncertain. Before diving into its specific components, it is important to acknowledge the foundation and premise of the Uncertainty Reduction Theory in order to fully grasp its validity. First, the term ‘uncertainty’ must be acknowledged as a function of the number and likelihood of alternatives that may occur, implying that uncertainty is high when there are several outcomes that are all equally plausible or, uncertainty is low when...
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...Reaction of Stock Price 3 2.1.1 The Modigliani/Miller Theorem 3 2.1.2 The Tax Theory of Dividends 4 2.1.3 The Signaling Theory of Dividends 5 2.1.4 Agency Costs 5 2.1.5 Theory of Dividends Based on Tax Clienteles 6 2.2 Chart in the Light of Previous Theories 7 3 Elton and Gruber (1970): “Marginal Stock Holders tax Rates and the Clientele effect”, Review of Economics and Statistics 52, p. 68-74 8 3.1 Investors’ Marginal Tax Rate 8 3.2 Ex-Dividend Price Decline 8 3.3 Equal Tax Rates 9 4 Reference List 9 Allen, F., Bernardo, A.E., & Welch, I. (2000). A theory of dividends based on tax 9 clienteles. The Journal of Finance, 55(6), S. 2499-2536 9 * The Porsche Takeover To answer the question it has to be distinguished between common stocks (ordinary shares) and preferred stocks: Common stock (ordinary stock) can be defined as a “security representing ownership of a corporation” (Brealey, Myers, & Allen, 2011, p. 913). In this context ownership means “the right to the cash flows and the right to take all financing, and investment decisions, and full cash flow and full control rights”. Preferred stock on the other hand can be defined as a “stock that takes priority over common stock in regard to dividends. Dividends may not be paid on common stocks unless dividend is paid on all preferred stocks. The dividend rate on preferred stock is usually fixed at time of issue” (Brealey, Myers, & Allen, 2011, p. 922). The price difference (up...
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...Discount: Reduction from the full amount of a price. The following are the five types of discounts which we see are: Simple Discount: Offer a price reduction on a product by a percentage. For example, buy a shirt and receive 25 % off the original price. Minimum Purchase Discount: Offer a price reduction on a minimum quantity purchase. For example, buy two shirts and receive 20 % off each shirt. Buy N, Get one Free. Offer a free gift with a minimum quantity purchase. For example, buy two shirts and receive a third shirt for free• Offer a price reduction on a product if another product is purchased. For example, buy a shirt and receive Rs.10 off a pair of jeans• Paired Set Discount: Offer a price reduction on an item if a certain quantity of another item is purchased. For example, buy three shirts and receive 30 % off a pair of jeans• Order Discount: Offer a price reduction or free shipping on the order total, if a certain amount is purchased. For example, buy Rs. 5000worth of merchandise, and receive 10 % off the total order. Banking: A system of trading in money which involved safeguarding deposits and making funds available for borrowers.* what is the use of mathematics in Banking •Bank is full of transactions. In turn the transaction is nothing but mathematics •Banks are also involved in stocks and bonds. Bond calculations are mathematical. Stock options are also quite mathematical Foreign...
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...Game Theory Application on Pricing Strategies Used by the Retail Supermarket Industry Everyday low pricing (EDLP) and High-Low Pricing are the most popular pricing strategies used by companies in the retail supermarket industry. In this part of the project, the two pricing strategies are analyzed using a game-theoretic framework and compared to the observed behavior of supermarket within the industry. First, the definitions of both strategies are provided to better understand the analysis. Everyday low pricing (EDLP) is a pricing strategy that provides consumers with low prices without the need of using of coupons or waiting for sales price events. This strategy was started by Wal-Mart and Procter & Gamble and it is believed that EDLP saves retailers the time and expense of applying short-term promotional pricing, as well as, the cost of distributing and processing of coupons. Companies who often adopted this strategy also believed that it creates shopper loyalty. (Barron's Educational Series, Inc., 2000) The basic premises that suppliers are basing on when using EDLP are the following: * Steady, competitive prices will lead to even demand for products. * Inventory and other logistical costs will drop due to effective management of product flows. * There will be reduction of promotional costs and other forms of trade. * The costs of saving due to consistent demand and better management of inventory will result to lower final price of the products. (Hurwich...
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...What is the role of the reserve army of labor Marx? How would you gauge Marx's approach in relation to the theories of effective demand developed by Kalecki and Keynes? Throughout economic theory, there are various responses to the creation and subsequent role of unemployment and the wage rate. In Karl Marx’s theory, unemployment, or the ‘reserve army of labour’, is necessary for capitalism to regenerate itself, and is also what determines the wage rate. For John Maynard Keynes and Michael Kalecki, unemployment is caused by the failure of effective demand. This essay will first demonstrate Marx’s approach to employment through the study of the reserve army of labour and the cyclical tendencies of the capitalist system, and then Keynes and Kalecki’s theories of effective demand which led to the proposition that the economy ‘will not settle at full employment equilibrium; by and large it will not even reach it except by chance’ (Halevi, 2007, week 7, p. 8). For Marx, unemployment, or the reserve army of labour, is a ‘necessary requirement for capital accumulation’ (Halevi, 2007, week 4, p. 2), linked to fluctuations in the wage rate and thus the rate of profit. The existence of a large reserve army of labour keeps wages down, because there are many unemployed workers available and willing to work for little money. Like the classical economists, Marx contends that low wages mean capitalists reduce their costs of production, resulting in a higher rate of profit and...
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...Demand for Goods and Services Classical and Monetarist View The Keynesian View of Interest Rates and Expenditure Implications of the Differences 234 234 235 235 235 D. Changes in Liquidity Preference 237 E. The Quantity Theory of Money and the Importance of Money Supply The Money Equation Diagrammatic Representation of the Quantity Theory of Money 238 238 238 F. Methods of Controlling the Supply of Money Interest Rate Control Control over Banking Ratios Direct Controls over Banks Control of Government Borrowing 240 240 240 240 241 G. Monetary Policy and the Control of Inflation 241 © ABE and RRC 230 Monetary Policy Objectives The aim of this unit, in conjunction with Study Unit 12, is to explain and evaluate the effectiveness of monetary policy in a closed and open economy and discuss the possible impact of monetary policy on business decision-making. When you have completed this study unit and Study Unit 12 you will be able to: demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between the banking system and the creation of money identify the components of the high-powered money stock and explain why these have a magnified impact on the money supply explain the quantity theory of money and its role in explaining the rate of inflation discuss the components of monetary policy and explain how they work evaluate the factors that determine the effectiveness of monetary policy compare and contrast the relative effectiveness...
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...What Is the Quantity Theory of Money? By Reem HeakalAAA | The concept of the quantity theory of money (QTM) began in the 16th century. As gold and silver inflows from the Americas into Europe were being minted into coins, there was a resulting rise in inflation. This led economist Henry Thornton in 1802 to assume that more money equals more inflation and that an increase in money supply does not necessarily mean an increase in economic output. Here we look at the assumptions and calculations underlying the QTM, as well as its relationship to monetarism and ways the theory has been challenged. QTM in a Nutshell The quantity theory of money states that there is a direct relationship between the quantity of money in an economy and the level of prices of goods and services sold. According to QTM, if the amount of money in an economy doubles, price levels also double, causing inflation (the percentage rate at which the level of prices is rising in an economy). The consumer therefore pays twice as much for the same amount of the good or service. Another way to understand this theory is to recognize that money is like any other commodity: increases in its supply decrease marginal value (the buying capacity of one unit of currency). So an increase in money supply causes prices to rise (inflation) as they compensate for the decrease in money's marginal value. The Theory's Calculations In its simplest form, the theory is expressed as: MV = PT (the Fisher Equation) Each variable...
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...London Southbank University Multinational Firms and Global Trade Multilateral Trade Liberalisation Nigel Grimwade Critically examine the achievements/failings of the rules based system of world trade that came into being with signing of GATT. Name: Francesko Xhaferaj Student ID: 3117098 Introduction The international free trade system which exists today was in large part developed due to the experience of the economic crisis of the 1930s and the Second World War. This was a protectionist era in which nations placed high trade barriers mainly in the form of tariffs, to protect their own industries, completely ignoring the benefits of comparative advantage and free trade. The prevailing belief after the Second World War was that national policies, preventing international trade were the major reason behind the economic downfall in the 1930s and to prevent a return of the depression, the US envisioned a global system to facilitate freer trade and political stabilisation. It was for these reason that that the general agreement on tariffs and trade otherwise known as GATT came into being. The purpose of this report is to identify the achievements of the GATT and how countries have benefited from the multilateral trading system it help to create. The report will look the challenges they have...
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...developed one or it is in the developing process. The changes in the prices of the crude oil are making positive and negative implications on every economy. When these changes of prices are severe ones, one might easily conclude that an economy is going to face problems such as unfavorable supply shocks, or according to the theory adverse supply shocks. When these kinds of problem arise in the world oil market, it is usually described as a world oil crisis. The world has witnessed 2 major oil crises and it is facing another one at the moment. In order to discuss the recent oil crisis and its economic implications I am going to refer to the appropriated economic theory and I will also exam! ine the two previous oil shocks in the world. As I mentioned previously the major problem that an economy is facing during every oil crisis is the adverse supply shock. Adverse supply shocks are unexpected events that reduce aggregate supply and therefore the output decreases and prices increase. In the language of economy we call this stagflation . Furthermore, I will refer to the organization that has caused the three supply shocks so far. OPEC, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, has the power to control the world oil prices by its reduction in the world oil supply. That’s what has done in the oil crisis that had happened in the early 70’s(Mankiw 252). OPEC’s reduction in the supply of oil had doubled the world oil price instantly. As I said previously this had caused stagflation in...
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...divided into two parts. In the first part, the meaning of recession will be provided and why recession can be considered as an economic problem will be explained. Also, the first part will explain how the strength and depth of recession can be measured. The second part of this essay will explain various economic policy tools that government often use to make sure that economy of a country grows. Part 1 Recession is defined as a condition whereby a country experiences temporary economic decline, during which time the trade and industrial activities in the country are reduced; and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country fall in two successive quarters (Arnold, 2014). A recession can also be said to have occurred if there is a big reduction in the economic activity of a country, and this last longer than few months (Arnold, 2014). When there is a recession in a country, there will be a fall in the country’s industrial production, employment, real income and wholesale –retail trade (Arnold, 2014). This means that recession often has negative effects on the economy of a country and that recession can lead to unemployment for people and lack of profits for businesses (Arnold, 2014). From the above definition, it can be assumed that if the GDP of a country fall for six months, the country will go into recession. GDP of a country is normally calculated every year and it is the monetary value of the combination of finished goods and services that are produced in a particular country...
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...This essay tries to highlight the contributions made to the theory of financial intermediation by Benston and Smith in 1976. Regarding the theory, there is one fundamental question among others, what is the main reason why financial intermediaries exist? In 1976 there was no clear consensus about the specific role of financial intermediaries and many different approaches existed on the issue how to analyze them in an appropriate way. The primary goal of the authors is to develop a proper framework for the analysis by setting the main focus on transaction costs. Therefore, they take a look at four different aspects: the demand for financial commodities, the production, their pricing altogether with the pricing of additional services and the influence of governmental regulation on financial intermediaries. They start their survey from a contrary point as the other authors did in recent history by defining financial intermediaries as firms which create specialized financial commodities. On the supposition that the individuals’ earnings over time do not enable the achievement of the desired inter-temporal consumption pattern, demand for financial commodities arises. In this case assets held by the consumers serve as a possibility to rearrange their intra- and intertemporal consumption pattern for maximizing their utility. This leads to two key facts. First, utility is based on consumption at different points in time and second, transaction costs occur by acquiring financial...
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...Great Depression Causes and Effects Introduction: October 29th, 1929 would be a historical day for United States. It was enter in a new period, which was “The Great Depression” period. Great Depression lasted for 10 years. October 24th is known as the “Black Thursday”, because the amount of selling share stock was tripled. The share prices were lower, which caused the crash of the stock market. The collapse of the stock market was thought to be the main cause of the great depression, but many economists do not think so. Great Depression very quickly was spread all over the world. The Great Depression was a period of high rates unemployment, bankrupting banks, lowering prices, and increasing the uncertainty to American nation. Moreover, it brought big changes in U.S politic, society and culture. In the beginning of the Great Depression Hoover was president of U.S. He made a lot of new reforms in order to face the Great Depression, but they were not successful. People were tired with Robert Hoover’s fail. All they needed was a new leader to get them out of that bed situation. Because of these, in the elections of 1929, most of American citizens voted for the Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt brought in a lot of changes in economy, politic, social and cultural life of Americans. His major programs were the New Deal (First Hundred Days) and the Second New Deal. These programs were very effective. The number of unemployment rate was lower comparing with...
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...Application of Theory Neukenya Jokines Chamberlain College of Nursing Application of Theory The future of nursing is dependent upon nursing leadership that adheres to the professional standards in regards to education, research and practice. On a daily basis decisions are made by nurses that directly affect the lives of others. Nursing theory is a guide that has been set in place in order for nurses to look upon when it comes to daily healthcare decisions. It was stated by Cody (2003), that “one learns to practice nursing by studying nursing theories” (pg. 226). This statement can be applied to the problems of nursing leadership, problem solving and decision making. Cody (2003), also states that “nursing practice will be transformed to the betterment of humankind when all nursing practice is fully autonomous and guided predominantly by nursing theory” (pg. 230). For many years nursing practice has found its foundations from nursing theories. Understanding how nursing knowledge within healthcare organizations influence patient and organizational outcomes are discussed in the middle range theory of nursing intellectual capital (Covell, 2008). Intellectual capital is defined as the combination of collective knowledge of individuals and structures in an organization or society. The theory consists of two concepts of nursing which includes human capital and nursing structural capital. According to (Covell & Sidani, 2013) “Intellectual capital theory defines human capital...
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...Great Depression Causes and Effects Introduction: October 29th, 1929 would be a historical day for United States. It was enter in a new period, which was “The Great Depression” period. Great Depression lasted for 10 years. October 24th is known as the “Black Thursday”, because the amount of selling share stock was tripled. The share prices were lower, which caused the crash of the stock market. The collapse of the stock market was thought to be the main cause of the great depression, but many economists do not think so. Great Depression very quickly was spread all over the world. The Great Depression was a period of high rates unemployment, bankrupting banks, lowering prices, and increasing the uncertainty to American nation. Moreover, it brought big changes in U.S politic, society and culture. In the beginning of the Great Depression Hoover was president of U.S. He made a lot of new reforms in order to face the Great Depression, but they were not successful. People were tired with Robert Hoover’s fail. All they needed was a new leader to get them out of that bed situation. Because of these, in the elections of 1929, most of American citizens voted for the Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt brought in a lot of changes in economy, politic, social and cultural life of Americans. His major programs were the New Deal (First Hundred Days) and the Second New Deal. These programs were very effective. The number of unemployment rate was lower comparing with...
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...COUNTRIES | 8 | * GERMANY | 8 | * FRANCE | 9 | * MEXICO | 10 | * USA | 11 | * GREECE | 12 | CONCLUSION | 13 | REFERENCES | 14 | INTRODUCTION The main objective of this paper is to explain the behavior and the effects of the inflation from the financial crisis in several countries talking about inflation and the causes and effects and later comparing different significant countries. The economic crisis from 2008 to 2011 is known as the world economic crisis that began that year, originates in the United States. Among the main factors causing the crisis would be high raw material prices, the overvaluation of the products, a global food and energy crisis, high world inflation and global threat of a worldwide recession, also a credit, and trust and mortgage crises on the markets. The root cause of all crises according to Austrian business cycle theory is an artificial expansion of credit. The origin of the crisis comes from the strong expansion on the mortgage credit in the United States, in a low interest rate in nominal terms and negative rate in real terms. Mortgage credit expansion required and increase in demand which mean lowering the terms of loans, giving them to people with dubious reputation but willing to accept in a higher rate that made extraordinary profitable this operation. Everything rested on the confidence that...
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