...Structures in All Eukaryotic Cells We're going to start with eukaryotic cells even though they tend to be more complex than prokaryotic. But, there is a method to our madness: you are a eukaryote and have eukaryotic cells, so we thought you might relate better. And, eukaryotic comes before prokaryotic alphabetically. Come up with whatever reasons you want for it, but eukaryotes are up first. Tough cookies. Eukaryotic Cell Structure and Function A cell is defined as eukaryotic if it has a membrane-bound nucleus. Any organism composed of eukaryotic cells is also considered a eukaryotic organism. Case in point: You. Biologists do not know of any single organism on Earth that is composed of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. However, many different types of prokaryotic cells, usually bacteria, can live inside larger eukaryotic organisms. Creepy, but true. We humans, for example, have trillions of bacteria living in our colons, not to mention in our mouths and stomachs and small intestines and…you get the picture. Despite the fact that we have gobs of prokaryotic cells living inside and on us, humans are still categorically eukaryotic organisms. Deal with it. This means that all human cells, including those found in the brain, the heart, the muscles, and so on, are also eukaryotic. Here is what one of these little guys looks like: OK, we are slightly impressed. That is a lot of stuff jam-packed into something we can't see too well with the naked eye. All of...
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...Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells | | Part of our definition/description of what it means to be a living thing on Earth includes the assertion that living things are made of cells and cell products. In other words, we consider the cell to be a pretty fundamental structural aspect of life. Cells in our world come in two basic types, prokaryotic and eukaryotic. "Karyose" comes from a Greek word which means "kernel," as in a kernel of grain. In biology, we use this word root to refer to the nucleus of a cell. "Pro" means "before," and "eu" means "true," or "good." So "Prokaryotic" means "before a nucleus," and "eukaryotic" means "possessing a true nucleus." This is a big hint about one of the differences between these two cell types. Prokaryotic cells have no nuclei, while eukaryotic cells do have true nuclei. This is far from the only difference between these two cell types, however. Here's a simple visual comparison between a prokaryotic cell and a eukaryotic cell: This particular eukaryotic cell happens to be an animal cell, but the cells of plants, fungi and protists are also eukaryotic. Despite their apparent differences, these two cell types have a lot in common. They perform most of the same kinds of functions, and in the same ways. Both are enclosed by plasma membranes, filled with cytoplasm, and loaded with small structures called ribosomes. Both have DNA which carries the archived instructions for operating the cell. And the similarities go far beyond the visible--physiologically...
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...Laboratory • • • • • • Turn light OFF Remove slides Raise stage Turn objective to the lowest (RED) power Wrap cord around microscope base Return microscope to appropriate cabinet Systematics • Study of biological diversity • Phylogeny = evolutionary history of a group of related organisms • Taxonomy = branch of biology concerned with naming and classifying biota into categories based on similarities and differences – Based on morphology, embryology, fossils, DNA, RNA, proteins – Taxon s. (taxa pl.) – Binomial nomenclature Taxonomic Classification • • • • • • • • Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species • Taxon • Binomial nomenclature • Dynamic Domains (3) • Bacteria, Archae, Eukarya • Based on: – Cell type (eukaryotic vs. prokaryotic) • Cell wall, plasma membrane,...
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...Lab 1 Introduction, Classification, Kingdom Cyanobacteria Principles of Biology II Laboratory: BSC 1011L Professor Pamela L. Pannozzo Microscopy • Compound Light Microscope – Pass light through a specimen – Magnification 400-2000X • Dissecting Microscope/Stereoscope – Pass light under and on top of a specimen – View specimens in 3-D – Magnify surface features – Magnification 20-40X • Electron Microscope – Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) • Magnification 25,000x • Photomicroscopy – Camera attached to compound light microscope – Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) • Magnification 50,000X The Microscope Procedure for using the Microscope • • • • • Turn on light Always begin with 4X objective lens Lower stage to lowest position below objective lenses Insert slide Raise stage using coarse adjustment to find specimen, scan slide using slide adjustment knobs • Use fine knobs to achieve sharp focus • Adjust light through condenser height and diaphragm • Never use the coarse adjustment knob while using the 40X objective lens Procedure for Storing the Microscope in this Laboratory • • • • • • Turn light OFF Remove slides Raise stage Turn objective to the lowest (RED) power Wrap cord around microscope base Return microscope to appropriate cabinet Systematics • Study of biological diversity • Phylogeny = evolutionary history of a group of related organisms • Taxonomy = branch of biology concerned with naming...
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...for the new materials covered since the 4th Examination. The Final Examination is comprehensive. About 20% of the points will be taken from this new material. The other 80% will be taken from material covered earlier in the semester. DNA Replication, basics of semi-conservative replication, names and functions of the 5 enzymes required for replication, origins of replication, replication bubbles, differences between leading and trailing strand replication, details of the processes occurring at the replication fork, characteristics of DNA replication, replication problems at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes, functions of telomers and teleomerases, chromosome packing, etc. Genes to Proteins, “One gene – one polypeptide chain, flow of genetic information - prokaryotes vs. eukaryotes, mRNA, details of Transcription – initiation, elongation and termination, processing of eukaryotic transcript into mRNA - 5’ cap and poly A tail and their functions, RNA splicing with intron excision by “spliceosomes”, Translation components, mRNA, the genetic code, how the code was deciphered, the code and protein synthesis, features of mRNA codons – starts, stops, be able to read the codon chart, tRNAs, Aminoacyl tRNA synthetase function, Ribosome structure and function, Stages of Translation - initiation, elongation and termination, polyribosomes, completing and targeting of functional proteins, chaperone proteins, post-translational modifications, protein targeting...
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...CHAPTER 6 PROKARYOTE AND EUKARYOTE MICROSCOPE INVENTORS 16th century Magnifying glass was introduced magnification 5 x Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1683) Invent a primitive microscope (magnification = 266 x) Looked at everything from rainwater to tears saw swimming living cells (microbes) He called as “animalcules” MICROSCOPE INVENTORS Robert Hooke (1665) See non-living particles invents the term “cell” after viewing slices of cork through a very primitive microscope MICROSCOPE INVENTORS The discovery and early study of cells progressed with the invention and improvement of microscopes in the 17th century Light microscopy LIGHT MICROSCOPE Compound or light microscope Visible light rays passes through specimens and uses glass lenses to view objects Different magnification of objective lense range from 4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x The lenses refract light such that the image is magnified into the eye LIGHT MICROSCOPE Magnification Magnification is the ratio of an object’s image to its real size. Resolving power is a measure of image clarity. It is the minimum distance two points can be separated and still viewed as two separate points. Resolution is limited by the wavelength of the source, in this case light. LIGHT MICROSCOPE Light microscopes can magnify effectively to about 1,000 times the size of the actual specimen At higher magnifications, the image blurs. Light microscope can resolve individual cells, it cannot...
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...Study guide for Exam 2 Exam date: October 29, 2012 Chapter 4 1. Why cells are small? The surface-area-to-volume ratio requires that cells to be small. Smalls cells are likely to have an adequate surface are for exchanging wastes for nutrients 2. Microscopy today: different types of microscopes. Amoeda, light microscope. Transmission electron micrograph, scanning electron micrograph 3. Prokaryots vs. eukaryotes. The Structure of Bacteria. Eukaryotic Cells: Organelles. Prokaryotic lack a membrane enclosed nucleus. Bacillus, spirillum, spirochete, coccus. Eukaryotic cell has a nucleus. 4. Nucleus, Ribosome, Endo membrane structures: Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, Lysosome, peroxysome and vacuole. Nucleus-membrane-bounded organelle within a eukaryotic cell that contains chromosomes and controls the structure and function of the cell. Ribosome- Site of protein synthesis in a cell; composed of proteins and ribosomal RNA. Endoplasmic reticulum – System of membranous saccules and channels in the cytoplasm, often with attached ribosomes. Golgi apparatus – organelle consisting of sacs and vesicles that processes, packages, and distributes molecules about or from the cell Lysosomes- are membrane bounded vesicles produced by the golgi apparatus. Peroxisomes- a membrane bound vesicles that enclose enzymes. Vacuoles- membrane bround sacs 5. Energy related organelles: Mitochondria and...
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...Mendel’s principle of inheritance Principle of segregation Two alleles per offspring, one from each parent Independent assortment Distribution of one pair of alleles does not influence another pair Genes don’t blend Eukaryotic and prokaryotic Prokaryotic – are one celled organisms. Two kinds- bacteria and archaea Cells structure is simple Eukaryotes- every organism that has more than one cell. Cell structure is more complex than prokaryotes Prokaryotes Prokaryotic cells are one celled organisms they were the first organisms on the planet First appeared around 3.7 bya Have a free flowing nucleoid with no nuclear envelope Cytoplasm- gel like, holds all of the cells internal structures (organellas) Ribosomes- you should know. Flagella- used for locomotion as well as a sensory tool (also present in eukaryotes) Pili- help with attaching to surfaces and the transfer of dna Eukaryotic First appeared 1.5 bya Has a nucleus contained in a nuclear membrane Many more organelles Mitochondria Mitochondria Responsible for producing energy Separate dna called, mitochondria dna, which is only passed down through the mother Eukaryotes Two types of cells in complex organisms Somatic cell (body cell) Diploid-has full set of paired chromosomes (46) Gamete cell (sex cell) Haploid-only has half of the chromosomes (23) Cell division Required for an organism to, Grow, Mature, Maintain tissues, reproduce Mitosis and meiosis Mitosis Prophase Metaphase ...
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...Chapter 8 The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance Multiple-Choice Questions 1) The creation of offspring carrying genetic information from a single parent is called A) asexual reproduction. B) sexual reproduction. C) a life cycle. D) regeneration. E) spontaneous generation. Answer: A 2) Which of the following statements regarding sexual and asexual reproduction is true? A) Cell division only occurs after sexual reproduction. B) Only offspring from asexual reproduction inherit traits from two parents. C) Sexual reproduction typically includes the development of unfertilized eggs. D) Sexual reproduction is more likely to increase genetic variation than is asexual reproduction. E) Only asexual reproduction results from the union of a sperm and an egg. Answer: D 3) Strictly speaking, the phrase "like begets like" refers to A) all forms of reproduction. B) sexual reproduction only. C) asexual reproduction only. D) production of gametes from a premeiotic cell. E) sexual reproduction between different species. Answer: C 4) Asexual reproduction requires ________ individual (s). A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E) 4 Answer B 5) With the exception of identical twins, siblings who have the same two biological parents are likely to look similar, but not identical, to each other because we have A) identical chromosomes, but different genes. B) identical genes but different chromosomes. C) the same combination of traits...
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...Bio 156 – Midterm Study Guide Lesson One I. Characteristics of Life • List four main characteristics of all living things II. Diversity and Organizing Life • Describe three ways of classifying, or ordering, life on earth. • Given a random ordering of the levels of organization of life, rearrange them into the proper sequence. • Describe the concept "an organism is more than the sum of its parts." • List the six kingdoms of life. • By definition, distinguish between a population, a community, and an ecosystem. • Distinguish between a producer, a consumer and a decomposer. III. Origins of Diversity- Evolution of Life • Define the term "biodiversity. • Define the term "evolution." • Describe how diversity of life can arise by the operation of natural selection. IV. The Nature of Biological Inquiry – Scientific Method • Distinguish between a hypothesis and a prediction • Distinguish between inductive and deductive logic • What is meant by the phrase "potentially falsifiable hypothesis"? • Define the term "control group" and tell the value of a control group in an experiment • Define the term "theory" and tell at what point in a study a hypothesis becomes a theory • Design an experiment to test a given hypothesis, using the procedure and terminology of the scientific method. Try the problem:...
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...Chapter 1: • Name four properties that all life forms have. Order, Regulation, Growth and Development, and Energy Processing 2. Briefly discuss Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection. The process of descent with modification is Darwin’s take on evolution. The mechanism he proposed for this was called natural selection, which is another way of saying unequalled reproductive success. First, he observed overproduction and competition. Next, he observed individual variation. Finally Darwin concluded unequalled reproductive success, or those best suited for the surroundings survived. 3. What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory? A hypothesis is an uncertain answer to a question, therefore untrue, and able to be tested. Another way to look at it is a judged explanation. A theory has a much broader scope than a hypothesis. An element is a substance than cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reaction Chapter 2: Chemistry for Biology • What is the difference between and element and a compound? An element is a substance than cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reaction. Compounds are substances that contain two or more elements in a fixed ratio. 2. Draw a picture of an atom. Label the nucleus, protons, neutrons and electrons 3. What is a covalent bond? A covalent bond forms when two atoms share one or more pairs of outer-shell electrons. 4. Why does ice float? In liquid water, hydrogen bonds...
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...microscope to be seen c. Where did microbes come from? Evolutionary origins, fossil evidence; prokaryotic cells eukaryotic cells * bacteria is the oldest known life form. Oldest datable geographical evidence was 3.8 bya * eukayotic cells arose from divergent prokaryotic lines. Endosymbioses came from mitochondria and chloroplasts. Unicellular types came from simple multicellular forms metazoans; significance of cyanobacterial ancestors * presence of cyanobacteria-like chains of cells in stomatolite fossils represent growth of cyanobacteria * cyanobacteria photosynthesize like plants; they use H2O to synthesize O2. d. Microbial taxonomy & phylogeny (3 domains: Archaea, Bacteria, & Eukarya ) * the 3 domains (bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes) evolved from a common cell * Archaea and bacteria include prokaryotes * Eukarya includes algae, plants, fungi, animals, and protists eukaryotes * Monera includes all 3 domains i. Taxonomic groupings: microbes in the different kingdoms of those domains ii. Similarities & differences: eukaryotic & prokaryotic cells; genomes iii. Metagenomics e. Who are the microbes: bacteria/archaea/fungi/protists/viruses; characterize/describe these * Bacteria: cells lacking a nucleus * Fungi: are in eukarya domain. A heterotrophic eukaryote with chitinous cell walls. * Protist: single-celled eukaryotic microbe, usually motile. Not a fungus * Virus: consists of a noncellular particle containing...
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...and types of instruments are involved in visualizing bacteria and viruses with a compound light microscope? Reflection- transmission-absorption with florescence-refraction. Condenser-is a lens that serves to concentrate light from the illumination source that is in turn focused through the object and magnified by the objective lens. iris diaphragm-regulates the amount of light on the specimen. objective lenses- magnifies ranges from 10x to 40x, ocular lenses. stage- supports the slide for viewing. focusing knobs-moves the stage up and down for focusing. total magnification- take the power of the objective (4X, 10X, 40x) and multiply by the power of the eyepiece, usually 10X. What are the differences between a hanging drop slide vs a smear in examining a microbe? Hanging drop- often is used with dark-field illumination. A drop of culture is placed on a coverslip that is encircled with petroleum jelly. The coverslip and drop are then inverted over the well of a depression slide. The drop hangs from the coverslip, and the petroleum jelly forms a seal that prevents evaporation. This...
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...| Syllabus College of Natural Science BIO/100 Version 2 Introduction to Life Science with Lab | Copyright © 2009, 2007 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved. Course Description This course applies a broad, conceptual understanding of biology. Students are introduced to scientific ideologies and concepts that not only shape the biological world, but also shape humans. Students examine the scientific method, evolution and biodiversity, the biology of cells, physiology, the dynamics of inheritance, and the effect humans have on the environment. The text emphasizes methods and the theoretical foundations of ideas, while minimizing isolated facts. It stresses the integration of ideas, making connections that form an understanding of the living world. The weekly online labs add a practical component to the class. The labs build upon the concepts in the text and offer a chance to interact with the material and further their understanding. Policies Faculty and students/learners will be held responsible for understanding and adhering to all policies contained within the following two documents: University policies: You must be logged into the student website to view this document. Instructor policies: This document is posted in the Course Materials forum. University policies are subject to change. Be sure to read the policies at the beginning of each class. Policies may be slightly different depending on the modality in which you attend class. If you have...
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...Difference between Catabolic and Anabolic Pathways * Catabolic Pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds. (eg Glucose catabolism) * Anabolic Pathways consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones. (eg amino acids to proteins) Exergonic and Endergonic Reactions * An exergonic reaction proceeds with a net release of free energy and is spontaneous (energy released) * An endergonic reaction absorbs free energy from its surroundings and is nonspontaneous. (energy required) Spontaneous Process * Can occur without net energy input, can occur quickly or slowly. * During a spontaneous change, free energy decreases and the stability of the system increases. * Equilibrium is a state of maximum stability. * A process is spontaneous and can only perform work when it is moving toward equilibrium. Substrate Specificity of Enzymes * The reactant that the enzyme acts on is called the enzymes substrate. * The enzyme binds to its substrate forming an enzyme substrate complex. * The active site is the region on the enzyme where the substrate binds. * Induced fit of a substrate brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyse the reaction. Difference between Competitive and Noncompetitive Inhibitors * Competitive inhibitors bind to the active site of an enzyme; competing with the substrate. * Noncompetitive inhibitors bind to another part...
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