PSY111- Foundations of Psychology for Health and Human Services

Workbook- Assignment 2

Sonia Chiciak
Student No.11534832

Word Counts (excl. citations) provided for each section.

PSY111- Foundations of Psychology for Health and Human Services
Exercise 1- Memory
Question 1- Summary: (253 words)
Grant, H. M., Lane, B.C., Clay, J., Ferrie, J., Groves, J.E., McDorman, T. A., Dark, V.J. (1998). Context-dependent memory for meaningful material: information for students. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, 617-623.
This study tested whether the environmental context dependency effect is seen through test performances where matched and mismatched study and test noise conditions were used. Throughout the study, the researcher used the same text to test the difference context dependency has on short answer (recall) and multiple choices (recognition). Using previous research that has shown that characteristics of environment are encoded in the memory, and can be used to retrieve other information; the researchers changed whether or not there was general background noise in controlled study and test conditions and measured the results based on performance in the test. Overall, studying and testing in the same environment resulted in better performance than in mismatching studying environments.
This study also found that, unlike in Smith (1986, as cited in Grant 1998), the context dependency effect for newly learned material is seen regardless of whether short answer or multiple choice is tested. As well as this, the study found that in contrast to Smith’s theory, situations involving higher cognitive processing would still associate with context dependency. This was further supported by a study by Martin and Aggleton (1993, as cited in Grant, 1998). Based on this research, Grant came to the conclusion that because normal testing conditions are quiet, a practical suggestion would be that students are more likely to perform better in exams if they study in quiet conditions.
One issue that the researcher didn’t test is the impact that studying to background music might have on a later test, but, based on their findings they inferred that the same context dependency affects should be seen.

Question 2- 4 keywords * Encoding specificity * Context dependent memory * Recall /recognition * Contextual distinctiveness
Question 3- 4 resources
Brown ,G ., Vousden ,J ., Mccormack ,T ., & Hulme ,C. (1999). The Development of Memory for Serial Order: A Temporal-contextual Distinctiveness Model. International Journal of Psychology, 34(5\6), 389-402. doi: 10.1080/002075999399747
Jennings , J ., Richard ,H ., & Standley ,W. (1980). Recall, Recognition, and Rate: Memory and the Heart. Psychophysiology, 17(1), 37-46. doi: 10.1111/1469-8986.ep12682910
Markopoulous, G., Rutherford, A., Cairns, C., & Green, J. (2010). Encoding instructions and stimulus presentation in local environmental context-dependent memory studies. Memory, 18(6), 610-624. doi: 10.1080/09658211.2010.497764
Zeelenberg, R. (2005). Encoding specificity manipulations do affect retrieval from memory. Acta Psychologica, 119(1), 107-121. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2004.12.001

Question 4- Summary 2: (267 Words)
Zeelenberg, R. (2005). Encoding specificity manipulations do affect retrieval from memory. Acta Psychologica, 119(1), 107-121. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2004.12.001
This study used three experiments to test the hypothesis that encoding specifity manipulations do affect retrieval from memory. Using the same methods as a previous study by Higham, the first experiment used a force report recall test in which the participants were presented with both a strong cue word and extralist word, eliminating the problem perceived from Highams study where there was the opportunity to guess. Not surprisingly, the results from the first experiment proved that the encoding specifity principle does relate to retrieval from memory.
In experiment two, the researcher used strict study conditions to prove McKinney’s observation that extralist cue recalled results were higher for bidirectional association cue target pairs then for unidirectionally association pairs with no back ward target to cue association. Based the results, which proved the hypothesis, Zeelenberg (2005) emphasized the need to factor this association in when designing future experiments.
Experiment three was used to further support the previous experiments findings that, overall, encoding specifity manipulations do affect retrieval from memory. By presenting target words in sentences, the researcher was able to show that, out of sixteen participants, thirteen recalled more target words in the more congruent condition opposed to the less congruent , with the other three showing no effect.
The only concern about this research is that a relatively small sample size (16 participants) was used to make inferences about the population. This raises the criticism that, in order to find more reliable results on the extent to which encoding specifty manipulations affect retrieval from memory, a larger sample should have been tested; possibly an area for future research.

Exercise 2- Emotion
Question 1- Peer reviewed journal article
Stevens, G. J., Dunsmore, J. C., Agho, K. E., Taylor, M. R., Jones, A. L., Van Ritten, J. J., & Raphael, B. (2013). Long-term Health and Wellbeing of People Affected by the 2002 Bali Bombing. Medical Journal of Australia, 198(5), 273-277. doi: 10.5694/mja12.11480
Question 2- Outline (145 words)
As a terrorist retaliation to the U.S war on terror, the Bali bombings occurred on October 12 2002 in Kuta. Two bombs in two close locations; a backpack device in Paddy’s bar and a second, more powerful car bomb outside Sari Club, killed a total of 202 people, 88 of which were Australians. The devastation of the bombings to the surrounding area was severe, with buildings demolished from the force of the bomb and windows broken up to several kilometres away. The economic structure of Bali and its reliance on tourism as a main income source meant that the bombings had harsh effects on the long term political and economic security of the country. The psychological effects of this event were far reaching with not only over 300 people left injured but communities and family members of the people killed left in an emotional turmoil.

Question 3- Psychological effects (368 words)

Due to the nature of the bombing and the high impact destruction it caused in the first 48 hours, the victims, and families of the victims, suffered huge psychological changes with not only the shock of the event, but also lack of information, meaning they didn’t know whether their loved ones were safe. With statistics showing over 200 deaths, including 88 Australians (Stevens et al., 2013), the weeks following the event saw a large number loved ones left grieving over the sudden attack.

As deaths involving deliberate violence are associated with high prevalence of trauma conditions, depression and complicated grief (Nakajima S, Ito M, Shirai A, Konishi T 2012), the months following the attack would have seen those bereaved from the bombings suffering depression symptoms and unstable behaviour. The risk factors for those who may suffer these psychological issues include having experienced direct exposure to the attack, suffered bereavement and have had little access to social support (Stevens et al., 2013). As well as this, Nakajima et al. (2012) points to the continued exposure of such events in mass media as a cause of complicated grief as the trauma of the event is not allowed to be forgotten.

Even years after the Bali bombings, victims are still experiencing physical and mental disorders, with direct victims still suffering scars reminding them of the events, making getting over the experience a long process. This is supported by Steven’s (2013) study that found a substantial proportion of this directly affected group of victims of the Bali Bomb were experiencing psychological distress and traumatic stress related symptoms 8 years after the bombing. These psychological effects were found to be higher in victims who had not accessed any support services.

Perhaps the most shocking statistics that show the psychological changes of the Bali bombing on the victims is the significant increase in suicide rates. A study by (Suryani et al., 2009) showed that before the Bali bombing in 2002, the average suicide rate for males where 2.84 per 100000 every year, increasing to 8.1 after 2002, for females this increase was from 1.51 to 3.68. The Hindu religion and its impact on the Balinese culture can be seen to affect the overall increase in suicide rates with the notion of collective guilt meaning most of the Balinese community was affected.

Question 4 – benefits of emotions (215 words)

Without emotions we wouldn’t be able to experience day to day life. In this way, emotion, and the way we use it can produce positive outcomes. Whilst emotion can have different meanings, and some may be negative, overall, there can be positive benefit from even negative emotions.

Emotion has been shown to create, and sustain, behaviours that occur from motivation to accomplish tasks you would otherwise prolong. This can be seen in workplace environments and the effect of stress as an emotion or anger and how it changes the way tasks are performed. Furthermore, in all aspects of our life, emotion has been shown to create more efficient and creative thinking and enhance problem solving abilities.

Another benefit of emotion is how it regulates our social interactions. This means that positive emotion and its outward appearance in making someone appear friendlier makes positive relationships and experiences. In this way, emotion is a form of expression, a universal language that creates a base for social interaction.

In this way, whilst emotions themselves can sometimes be negative, overall, the benefits of these emotions influence all aspects of life. This can be seen in how emotion creates motivation and the willingness to sustain an action and also in how we interact with others and how this develops relationships.

Exercise 3- Development
This experiment would look at two groups of randomly selected children, 40 males between the ages of 5-7 and 40 females in the same age bracket. Each individual would enter into a room with typically gender stereotyped toys, both male and female. They would be asked to select three toys that first attract their attention. These would be documented as to whether they were the ‘boys’ toys or ‘girls’ toys. As well as this, the group of children would be from the same school in order to keep a level of reliability. 1. True experiment- Based on the fact the groups would be randomly selected for the experiment from children within one school, this would be a true experiment as opposed to a quasi-experiment where the groups are naturally selected (for example if two separate schools were used) 2. Hypothesis-
Young boys are more likely to conform to gender stereotypes when choosing toys to play with as opposed to young girls whose choice will be less affected. 3. Variables-
The independent variable in this experiment would be the gender of the individual entering the room, with equal number of each gender taking part in the experiment. The dependent variable would be the toys in the room as the same ones will be placed in the same way for all participants, providing no lean towards a particular gender stereotyped toy. 4. Confounding Variable-
A potential confounding variable in this experiment may be if the person directing the children on the experiment could influence the choices of toys they make. This could be seen if a male tells the young boys to go choose they toys, they may be more likely to choose stereotypically ‘male’ toys in order to please the man. One way we could overcome this confounding variable would be to provide (very basically) written instructions that the children could understand with no contact with anyone related to the experiment before they enter the room. 5. Results- (392 words)
A number of resources indicate that the hypothesis of the experiment is most likely to be true as they have tested both that boys and girls prefer to choose gender stereotyped toys, and within this, boys are more likely to show these stereotypes. Whilst these studies used different dependent variables, they all tested the use of toys. The independent variable of gender was the same as the proposed experiment and so the results can be used.

A study by Cherney and London (2006) compared how 5 to 13 year boy and girls spent time on leisure activities. Whilst this study determined how boy and girls around the ages of 5 to 13 used toys, computers, television and sport , for this experiment we mainly want to focus on the results found of the toy based study. As the independent variable of this experiment is the same as the one tested in the proposed experiment, the results showing that children preferred gender stereotype toys show that similar results would be found in our results. The results from similar experiments by Martin, Eisenbud and Rose(1995) and Carter and Levy (1988, cited in Cherney & London, 2006) further support these findings. One limitation of these studies that would also affect the results of this study is the differences in ethnic and economic characteristics of the participants and how this affects their gender stereotyped preferences.

In terms of boys preferring gender type toys over girls, this is supported by a study by Martin et al. (1995) that tested the gender stereotypes of pre-school age children and how these affected choice of toys by asking children to identify toys as either male or female and their judgement of these toys when they knew the gender stereotype. Again using the same independent variable of gender, the results showed that boys preferred more masculine toys whereas girls were more open to gender neutral toys as well as stereotypically girls toys. This supports the hypothesis, though it should be noted that studies including one by Cherney and Ryalls(1999) did not show as clear results.

Through the above results showing young children generally choose toys based on gender preferences, it can be seen that the hypothesis of the experiment would most likely be proved. This could because of a number of reasons including the influences of parents and stereotypic gender roles on television. Interesting, it was found that play with varying gender type toys is best for children to develop certain skills.

Exercise 4- Motivation
Question 1- Self Determination Theory (104 words)
Self-determination theory (SDT) concerns itself with the health and well-being choices of individuals and how unhealthy choices can best be changed through the internalisation of values and skills for change. Concerning itself with lifestyle circumstances that can be controlled by the individual including smoking, hygiene and diet (Ryan, Patrick, Deci & Williams 2008), the theory states that in order for a change in lifestyle to be better maintained it has to come about through the patient’s experience of autonomy, competence and relatedness. Therefore, SDT supports treatment that is more likely to use these experiences as they are more likely to have long term adherence.
Question 2- Vocation- Social Worker (100 words)
A social worker is a mental health professional that helps people with a range of issues including health issues and substance abuse by using social theories to find the client treatment. One specific example shows the use of self- determination theory in relation to a client would be if a person was assigned to me having an issue with alcohol that had resulted in number of drunk and disorderly charges. This middle age male suffered from a mid-life crisis when he lost he job and could no longer provide for his family, these emotions caused him to turn to alcohol.
Question 3- Self Determination theory as a course of action (196 words)
Due to the clients alcohol dependency he had no support from his family as his wife decide the kids would affect by his choices. In terms of self-determination theory, the client will be engaging to seek help to overcome his issues of alcohol abuse in order to regain his family. As a social worker, my job would mean I have to remind him why it is that his will to change and help him to internalize his values and create skills to change (Ryan et al. 2008). As well as this, in using self- determination theory I would be required as a social worker to enhance his experience of autonomy, competence and relatedness.
In regards to autonomy I would have to engage the client so he personally endorses the importance of change through identified regulation whist avoiding apply external controls. In helping the client to experience competence, as a social worker you need to be able to give the client feedback as well as support them in the right direction. Finally, in term of relatedness on a professional level you will be required to show the client that there respected and care to over there issues.
Question 4- Possible Problem (94 words)
One problem which could emerge if you tried to apply self-determination theory could be that the client doesn’t engage in the full requirements of treatment. The client needs to want to change, however, if the client’s wife for example said to him if he doesn’t stop drinking he won’t be able to see his wife and kids this means that the client is going try his best to overcome his alcohol addiction in order to regain him family back. But if his wife didn’t give him a chance he could turn to alcohol more.

Reference List
Exercise 1- Emotion
Grant, H. M., Lane, B.C., Clay, J., Ferrie, J., Groves, J.E., McDorman, T. A., & Dark, V.J. (1998). Context-dependent memory for meaningful material: information for students. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 12, 617-623.
Markopoulous, G., Rutherford, A., Cairns, C., & Green, J. (2010). Encoding instructions and stimulus presentation in local environmental context-dependent memory studies. Memory, 18(6), 610-624. doi: 10.1080/09658211.2010.497764
Zeelenberg, R. (2005). Encoding specificity manipulations do affect retrieval from memory. Acta Psychologica, 119(1), 107-121. doi: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2004.12.001
Jennings , J ., Richard ,H ., & Standley ,W. (1980). Recall, Recognition, and Rate: Memory and the Heart. Psychophysiology, 17(1), 37-46. doi: 10.1111/1469-8986.ep12682910
Brown ,G ., Vousden ,J ., Mccormack ,T ., & Hulme ,C. (1999). The Development of Memory for Serial Order: A Temporal-contextual Distinctiveness Model. International Journal of Psychology, 34(5\6), 389-402. doi: 10.1080/002075999399747

Exercise 2- Memory
Nakajima, S., Ito, M., Shirai, A., & Konishi, T. (2012) Complicated grief in those bereaved by violent death: the effects of post-traumatic stress disorder on complicated grief. Dialogues Clin Neurosci, 14, 210-214.
Stevens, G. J., Dunsmore, J. C., Agho, K. E., Taylor, M. R., Jones, A. L., Van Ritten, J. J., & Raphael, B. (2013). Long-term Health and Wellbeing of People Affected by the 2002 Bali Bombing. Medical Journal of Australia, 198(5), 273-277. doi: 10.5694/mja12.11480
Suryani, L. K., Page, A., Lesmana, C. B. J., Jennaway, M., Basudewa, I. D. G., & Taylor, R. (2009). Suicide in paradise: aftermath of the Bali bombings. Psychological Medicine, 39(8), 1317-1323. doi: 10.1017/S0033291708004893

Exercise 3- Development
Cherney, I. D., & London, K. (2006) Gender linked differences in toys, television shows, computer games and outdoor activities of 5- 13 year old children. Sex Roles, 54, 717-726. doi: 10.1007/s11199-006-9037-8
Cherney, I. D., & Ryalls, B. O. (1999). Gender-linked differences in the incidental memory of children and adults. Experimental Child Psychology, 72, 305–328.
Martin, C. L., Eisenbud, L., & Rose, H. (1995). Children’s gender based reasoning about toys. Child Development, 66, 1453–1471.

Exercise 4- Motivation
Ryan, R. M., Patrick, H., Deci, E.L., & Williams, G. C. (2008) Facilitating health behaviour change and its maintenance: Interventions based on Self-Determination Theory. The European Health Psychologist, 10, 2-5.