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VELEUČILIŠTE VERN'
Zagreb, Trg bana Josipa Jelačića 3

ESEJ
SLOBODA GOVORA NASPRAM GOVORA MRŽNJE NA PRIMJERU CHARLIEJA HEBDOA

Kolegij: Etika komuniciranja
Mentorica: Stana Odak Krasić, mag. nov. Studentica: Karla Jarčov

Zagreb, ožujak 2015.
Sadržaj
Uvod 3
1. Sloboda govora 4
1.1. Sloboda govora u svijetu 4
1.2. Sloboda govora u Republici Hrvatskoj 4
2. Govor mržnje 6
3. Sloboda govora naspram govora mržnje- Charlie Hebdo 7
Zaključak 12
Nacrtak 13
Literatura i izvori 14
Popis ilustracija 15

Uvod
Sloboda govora sastavni je dio Opće deklaracije o ljudskim pravima Ujedinjenih naroda iz 1948. godine, kao i mnogih nacionalnih zakonodavstava. Pravo stupa na scenu kad se prekrše prava drugih u tolikoj mjeri da nastupe štetne posljedice, a novinarska etika ima zadatak spriječiti da do njih uopće dođe. Više nije dovoljno da samo novinari znaju etička načela jer su novi mediji omogućili svima koji ih znaju koristiti sudjelovanje u javnim objavama. Budući da u suvremenim medijima svi mogu sudjelovati u javnome komuniciranju, bilo bi nužno da se svi sudionici komunikacijskih postupaka posredstvom masovnih medija upoznaju s osnovnim etičkim pravilima.
Rad donosi studiju slučaja na primjeru teorirstičkog napada na Charlie Hebdo, francuski tjednik koji svojim karikaturama povlači tanku liniju između slobode govora i govora mržnje.
Cilj rada je ispitati etiku objava članaka u magazinu i utvrditi postoji li razlika između slobode govora i govora mržnje..
Esej je pisan na temelju stručne literature i internetskih članaka vezanih uz problematiku teme. Koncipiran je u nekoliko poglavlja, odvajajući teorijsko određenje od studije slučaja. Konačko, autor donosi temeljne zaključke vezane uz predmet rada.

1. Sloboda govora
Sloboda govora predstavlja samo jedno u nizu općih ljudskih prava, prava svakog pojedinca u cijelome svijetu. Zbog toga se kaže da je neko pravo opće ljudsko pravo, jer treba vrijediti za svakog pojedinca podjednako u cijelome svijetu. Postojanje slobode govora kao ljudskog prava dalo je svakoj osobi onu vrijednost kakvu i zaslužuje, jer se svi ljudi rađaju sa jednakim pravima koja im prirodno pripadaju.

1.1. Sloboda govora u svijetu
„Sloboda govora kao opće ljudsko pravo nije svugdje, u svim dijelovima svijeta, podjednako primjenjiva. U nekim zemljama, prije svega u zemljama s totalitarnim režimom (gdje je sva vlast u rukama jedne osobe ili elitizirane grupacije), sloboda govora je veoma ograničena, pod utjecajem je jake cenzure vlasti, te u tim režimima gotovo da i ne postoji. Sve što neko kaže i radi u takvim zemljama, a što je protivno onome što zastupa vlast, može takvu osobu stajati života, kazne su rigorozne, a uključuju i smrtnu kaznu (URL:http://www.odjek.ba/index.php, 30.3.2015.).“
Može se zaključiti da je sloboda govora primjenjiva samo u onim granicama u kojima je u službi podrške vladajućem režimu. Stoga se u slučaju ovakvih zemalja ne može ni govoriti o slobodi govora kao općem ljudskom pravu svake osobe, svakog pojedinca. S druge strane, u zemljama u tranziciji, u razvoju, zemljama koje teže modernoj zapadnoliberalnoj demokraciji, sloboda govora je dosta prisutna i mnogo manje ograničena u odnosu na zemlje s totalitarnim režimima. I u zemljama u razvoju pokušava se udariti na temelje slobode govora kao općeg ljudskog prava. Međutim, u ovakvim zemljama postoje i pravni načini kojima se može boriti za pravdu, slobodu govora koja ne vrijeđa drugog i drugačijeg bez posljedica za vlastitu sigurnost.

1.2. Sloboda govora u Republici Hrvatskoj
Hrvatska je, kao i mnoge druge zemlje, u svoje zakonodavstvo prenijela načela Opće deklaracije UN o pravima čovjeka. Tako članci 16., 38. i 39. Ustava republike Hrvatske glase: Članak 16. Slobode i prava mogu se ograničiti samo zakonom da bi se zaštitila sloboda i prava drugih ljudi te pravni poredak, javni moral i zdravlje. Svako ograničenje slobode ili prava mora biti razmjerno naravi potrebe za ograničenjem u svakom pojedinom slučaju. Članak 38.
Jamči se sloboda mišljenja i izražavanja misli. Sloboda izražavanja misli obuhvaća osobito slobodu tiska i drugih sredstava priopćavanja, slobodu govora i javnog nastupa i slobodno osnivanje svih ustanova javnog priopćavanja. Zabranjuje se cenzura. Novinari imaju pravo na slobodu izvještavanja i pristupa informaciji. Jamči se pravo na ispravak svakomu komu je javnom viješću povrijeđeno Ustavom i zakonom utvrđeno pravo.
Članak 39.
Zabranjeno je i kažnjivo svako pozivanje ili poticanje na rat ili uporabu nasilja, na na‐ cionalnu, rasnu ili vjersku mržnju ili bilo koji oblik nesnošljivosti.“ (URL: http://www.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeno/2001/0705.htm, 30.3.2015.)

Vidljivo je da Ustav RH propisuje slobodu misli i izražavanja, javnog nastupa i medijskih objava, pravo na ispravak te izrijekom zabranjuje cenzuru. Sve je to u skladu s Općom deklaracijom UN o pravima čovjeka, kao i zabrana širenja nacionalne, rasne i vjerske mržnje smatra Obradović (2005). Članak 16. koji propisuje mogućnost ograničenja sloboda i prava kojima bi se prekršile slobode i prava drugih ljudi, pravni poredak, javni moral i zdravlje također je usklađen s općim ljudskim pravima. Njegov drugi stavak, koji nalaže da ta ograničenja moraju biti razmjerna naravi potrebe za ograničenjem u svakom pojedinome slučaju, štiti ljudska prava od eventualne zloporabe zakonodavne vlasti. Bez toga stavka, ostala bi mogućnost da zakonodavac proširi ograničenja na svaku kritiku vlasti pod izlikom kako time štiti javni moral.

2. Govor mržnje
Govor mržnje, smatra Eduard Klein (2003: 191), “verbalizacija je negativnih emocija destruktivnog karaktera”. Zoran Tomić (2002: 130) pak misli da se “govorom mržnje smatra napadački govor kojim se širi mržnja, nesnošljivost i poziva na nasilje protiv skupine ljudi koja se može identificirati po rasi, nacionalnom ili etničkom podrijetlu, boji kože, vjeroispovijesti, spolu ili nekim drugim značajkama”. Kako dolazi do stvaranja govora mržnje u velikoj grupi? Klein (2003) navodi šest čimbenika koji tomu pogoduju, a to su: povijesni aspekti, narodne pjesme i literatura, mitovi, religija, pojava karizmatičnih vođa i mediji. (prema Labaš, Grmuša, 2012: 101).
„Jedna od definicija govora mržnje sadržana je i u dodatku Preporuke Ministarskog odbora Vijeća Europe No. R (97) 20 o “govoru mržnje”. U tom je dokumentu utvrđeno da govor mržnje podrazumijeva sve oblike izražavanja kojima se šire, raspiruju, potiču ili opravdavaju rasna mržnja, ksenofobija, antisemitizam ili drugi oblici mržnje temeljeni na netoleranciji, uključujući tu i netoleranciju izraženu u obliku agresivnog nacionalizma i etnocentrizma, te diskriminacija i neprijateljstvo prema manjinama, migrantima i osobama imigrantskog podrijetla.“ (Alaburić, 2003: 4)
Zabrinjavajuće je da se govor mržnje pokušava opravdavati slobodom mišljenja i izražavanja. Alen Rajko otvara tri pitanja: “pitanje opravdanosti (Može li se opravdano smatrati da govor mržnje nije zaštićen pravom na slobodu izražavanja?), pitanje razgraničenja (Gdje je granica između slobode izražavanja i govora mržnje?) te pitanje zlorabe (Kako spriječiti da se kao govor mržnje tretiraju legitimni zahtjevi, primjerice politički nepoćudni sa stajališta određenoga režima?).” Za Rajka je (1999) govor mržnje neraskidivo vezan s pitanjem tolerancije. Međutim, dolazi do paradoksa tolerancije jer njeni zagovornici priznaju opravdanost netolerantnoga ponašanja prema nasilnicima. Paradoks se krije u činjenici da se tolerancija zagovara samo prema mišljenjima i djelovanjima koja nisu bitno različita. Kako bilo, “taj se paradoks mora prihvatiti kao jedini moguć, jer odustajanje od nasilja spram nasilnika ili zagovornika nasilja znači odustajanje od slobode, jednakosti i pravednosti kao temeljnih vrijednosti zajednice”. (prema Labaš, Grmuša, 2012: 102).

3. Sloboda govora naspram govora mržnje- Charlie Hebdo
Sloboda izražavanja podliježe organičenjima radi sprečavanja zloporabe, zbog potrebe da se zabrana govora mržnje uskladi s pravom na slobodu izražavanja.
Govor mržnje u svakodnevnome životu manifestira se u različitim oblicima, kako po načinu i sredstvima ekspresije, tako i po stupnju svoje transparentnosti i štetnosti svojih učinaka. Neki su kao takvi prepoznatljivi već na prvi pogled, dok su drugi “suptilniji”, pa stoga i teže prepoznatljivi.
„Kada je danski karikaturist Kurt Westergaard 2009. godine imao predavanje na Yaleu, izazvao je lavinu neslaganja. Svjetski je postao poznat 2006. godine kada je na poziv izdavača Jyllands-Postena načinio karikaturu proroka Muhameda onako »kako ga je on vidio«. Narisao ga je s turbanom u kojem je bomba s fitiljem. Zbog tog crteža silno su se uzbunili muslimani na svim stranama svijeta. Mnogi od njih drže uopće nedoličnim slikom prikazivati proroka Muhameda i u nekim je zemljama to izričito zabranjeno. Posebno su se osjetili pogođenima što je osoba koja znači najdublju srž njihova identiteta prikazana kao terorist. S nekoliko poteza svoje olovke Westergaard je desakralizirao vjerski simbol i duboko uvrijedio više od milijardu ljudi. Kritičari Westergaardova posjeta Yaleu optužili su profesora koji ga je pozvao da je govornicu ustupio jednome odvratnom trgovcu. Westergaard je sebe i svoju karikaturu vidio drukčije. U predavanju je spomenuo stajalište Flemminga Rosea, urednika za kulturu u Jyllands-Postenu. Rose je branio svoju odluku da izazove i da tiska uvredljive slike uz sljedeće obrazloženje: U liberalnim demokracijama ljudi imaju mnoga prava, ali jedno pravo nemaju, a to je »pravo da ih (drugi) ne uvrijede«.“ (Volf, 2009: 456)
Ovaj slučaj iz 2009. godine podsjeća na nedavni događaj u Francuskoj, napad na novinarsku redakciju Charlie Hebdoa.

Teroristički napad na redakciju satiričnog magazina Charlie Hebdo u Parizu, u kojem je ubijeno 12 osoba, izazvao je opravdane reakcije osude diljem svijeta. Upad na radno mjesto i ubojstvo ljudi koji su se tu zatekli nema opravdanja, niti se može i smije relativizirati na bilo koji način. Ljudi diljem svijeta izražavaju potporu magazinu Charlie Hebdo, što na društvenim mrežama, što na ulicama, pozivajući se na slobodu govora.
Huffington Post piše kako je Charlie Hebdo je poznat po ismijavanju Proroka Muhameda, i drugih vjerskih ličnosti i figura, u različitim kontekstima koji su izazivali ljutite reakcije muslimanske zajednice godinama. Uredništvo magazina je napadnuto zapaljivom bombom 2011. godine, kao reakcija protiv objavljenih crteža proroka. (URL: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/erik-bleich/limiting-hate-speech-is-i_b_6459024.html, 29.3.2015.)
Incident je u zapadnim medijima bio proglašen napadom na slobodu govora i Charlie Hebdo je postao 'imidž' po kojem se postavlja granica slobode govora. Magazin je nastavio raditi sa svojim uobičajenim provokativnim stilom. Širom Europe i u SAD-u tvrdi se da je napad na magazin Charlie Hebdo bio napad na slobodu tiska i neotuđivo pravo novinara u demokratskom društvu da se izjasne bez gubitka slobode ili straha za vlastite živote. Ubojstvo karikaturista i urednika Charlie Hebdoa se proglašava napadom na princip slobode govora. Tako se napad na Charlie Hebdo predstavlja kao još jedno nasilje od strane muslimana koji ne mogu da istrpe zapadnjačke “slobode”.
Dakle, pretpostavka je da su redakcija ovog magazina i njeni novinari napadnuti zbog slobode izražavanja stavova i mišljenja u formi karikature. Dakako, sloboda govor i izražavanja je temeljno ljudsko pravo i za mnoge ljude je ona svetinja za koju se vrijedi boriti i žrtvovati.
Iako je sloboda tiska neupitna vrijednost zapadnjačke, liberalne demokracije i ona je ugrožena terorističkim pokoljem u redakciji satiričkog lista Charlie Hebdo, zbog čega su u pravu svi oni koji prosvjeduju zbog tog barbarskog čina, imaju li branitelji te iste liberalne demokracije išta reći o razbojničkoj i degutantnoj kampanji protiv islama i muslimana te govoru mržnje iza koje stoji taj pariški nakladnički projekt? Odgovarajući na optužbe da Charlie Hebdo svojim karikaturama namjerno provocira muslimane, glavni urednik tog lista Gérard Biard prije tri godine je rekao: “... prije svega, mi smo ateisti, što znači da se borimo protiv svih religija - podvlačim svih”. (URL: http://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/jan/13/charlie-hebdo-3m-copies-languages-french-magazine, 29.3.2015.)

Neki smatraju da djelatnost magazina Charlie Hebdo nema nikakve veze s novinarstvom i slobodom izražavanja, te da je glavni krivac za parišku tragediju francuska vlast koja se s govorom mržnje magazina Charlie Hebdo nije obračunala još davnih dana.

Ilustracija 1. Primjer Charlie Hebdo karikature
Izvor: (URL:http://charliehebdo.fr/en, 30.3.2015.)

Razmatranja u svezi ubojstava karikaturista francuskog satiričkog tjednika, uglavnom se svode na dilemu ili sloboda tiska i govora, ili govor mržnje, što oboje navodno predstavlja Charlie Hebdo. Kao i svako pojednostavljenje i ovo ispušta iz vida slojevitost problema, pa je nužno zapitati se je li "Charlie" uistinu reprezentativan primjer na kojemu se može dokazivati postojanje ili nepostojanje slobode mišljenja kao preduvjeta demokratskog društva?
„Sustav današnjih političkih sloboda utemeljen je u francuskoj Deklaraciji o pravima čovjeka i građanina iz 1789., dokumentu kojim je označen kraj feudalnog poretka. Izvorna demokratska ideologija uspostavljena ovim dokumentom, slobodom je izražavanja željela poduprijeti ideju narodnog suvereniteta, odnosno narodne slobode, nasuprot dotadašnjem staleškom društvu u kojem je, pretočena u zakone, volja kralja i najmoćnijih staleža bila temelj apsolutizma.“ (URL: http://www.hkv.hr/izdvojeno/komentari/nenad-piskac/19439-slucaj-charlie-hebdo-neprihvatljivim-terorizmom-na-neprihvatljiv-govor-mrznje.html, 29.3.2015.)
Važno je međutim napomenuti da je to bilo vrijeme u kojem se ogromna većina ljudi ravnala prema čvrstom moralu naslonjenom na tradicionalne vrijednosti poput religijskih uvjerenja i obitelji. S obzirom da nisu mogli predvidjeti razaranje tradicijskog morala koje je uslijedilo od tada pa do danas, može se reći da utemeljiteljima građanskog društva ni na kraj pameti nisu bile ekstremne implikacije načela slobode izražavanja.
„Razmišljanja oko francuskog satiričkog tjednika sugeriraju da je, naizgled ničim, ograničena sloboda izražavanja. Teza je to koju forsiraju u suvremenim društvima sve moćniji, sve manipulativniji i agresivniji mediji koji, nerijetko, neodgovorno se odnoseći prema ljudima, stvaraju skandale od kojih žive. Neke od karikatura objavljenih u Charlieu, svojom su uvrjedljivošću u kojoj nema ni trunke humora ili satire, bile na tragu takvog poimanja medijskih sloboda. Na takvu se medijsku usmjerenost nadovezuju konkretni politički interesi koji, manje li više razvidno, stoje iza pojedinih glasila.“ (URL: http://www.hkv.hr/izdvojeno/vai-prilozi/i-lj/kraljevic-egon/19445-e-kraljevic-charlie-hebdo-i-sloboda-vrijedanja.html, 29.3.2015.)
Zagovornici Charliea Hebdoa ovaj tjednik brane tvrdnjom da im drugi ne mogu određivati granice slobode, jer oni ne mogu i znati što koga vrijeđa. Ovakvo poimanje slobode vrijeđanja neodrživa je ispraznica. Kao što izreka kaže: „Sloboda govora završava tamo gdje započinje govor mržnje.“ Satirični časopis Charlie Hebdo davno je prešao tu granicu.
Mnogo se ovih dana govori o slobodi govora. Neprijeporno je, da pravo na slobodu govora treba štititi, pa i onda kad se izgovaraju stvari koje vrijeđaju. No, zaboravlja se da pravo na slobodu govora uključuje i nekakvu odgovornost prema drugima, te da to nije jedino i apsolutno ljudsko pravo. Postoje i druga ljudska prava, koja su čak važnija od prava na slobodu govora i stoga ono nije vrhunac svih prava.
Sloboda izražavanja ima vitalni značaj u demokratskom društvu i to je svima u interesu, te stoga treba biti poduprta, ali pod uvjetom da nije na štetu drugih također važnih ljudskih prava.
Svako pravo, međutim, nosi odgovornost, pogotovo kad oni koji ga ostvaruju imaju mogućnost utjecati na živote drugih ljudi. Pravo razumijevanje slobode govora mora biti uvijek mišljeno s odgovornošću. Stoga se ne može tolerirati svaki govor, što god bi mogao biti, jer se onda vrijednost slobode govora podiže, a time zapravo i toleranciju, na razinu iznad svih ostalih ljudskih vrijednosti, a koja inače nisu ništa manje važna, primjerice, poput ljudskog dostojanstva i ravnopravnosti interesa i poštovanja. Potrebna je, dakle, svijest o opasnosti koju donose riječi i slike, te o potrebi ograničavanja nekih oblika izražavanja, koji su označeni kao mogući poticaj za štetne, diskriminatorne akcije. Riječi, su u velikoj mjeri poticaji za djelovanje. Sloboda govora je vodeće pravilo, te jedno od temelja demokracije, ali istodobno, ona ne znači anarhiju, a samo ostvarivanje prava na slobodno izražavanje ne uključuje i pravo na neopravdano činjenje štete prema drugima i njihovo vrijeđanje.
„Stanje u medijima zadnjih nekoliko mjeseci izvrsno ocrtava izjava koju je svojedobno dao Ivica Crnić, tada još predsjednik Vrhovnog suda Republike Hrvatske: „Devetnaesto i dvadeseto stoljeće ljudski je rod potrošio na borbu da se medijima osigura sloboda izvješćivanja. Čini se da će 21. stoljeće potrošiti na borbu s medijima, da se tako stečenom slobodom koriste odgovorno“.“ (URL: http://www.hkz-mi.hr/List--Mi-/Cemu-sluzi-sloboda-govora-.aspx, 30.3.2015.)

Zaključak
Govor mržnje nerijetko se opravdava kao sloboda govora.
Mnogo se ovih dana govori o slobodi govora. Neprijeporno je, da pravo na slobodu govora treba štititi, pa i onda kad se izgovaraju stvari koje vrijeđaju. No, zaboravlja se da pravo na slobodu govora uključuje i nekakvu odgovornost prema drugima, te da to nije jedino i apsolutno ljudsko pravo. Postoje i druga ljudska prava, koja su čak važnija od prava na slobodu govora i stoga ono nije vrhunac svih prava.
Sloboda izražavanja ima vitalni značaj u demokratskom društvu i to je svima u interesu, te stoga treba biti poduprta, ali pod uvjetom da nije na štetu drugih također važnih ljudskih prava.
Pravo razumijevanje slobode govora mora biti uvijek mišljeno s odgovornošću. Stoga se ne može tolerirati svaki govor, što god bi mogao biti, jer se onda vrijednost slobode govora podiže, a time zapravo i toleranciju, na razinu iznad svih ostalih ljudskih vrijednosti, a koja inače nisu ništa manje važna, primjerice, poput ljudskog dostojanstva i ravnopravnosti interesa i poštovanja.
Govor mržnje nije sloboda govora, to je zloupotreba slobode govora i nije joj mjesto u medijima- glavni je zaključak koji možemo istaknuti nakon studije slučaja Charlie Hebdo.

Nacrtak
Predmet ovog rada su sličnosti i razlike između općih ljudskih prava. Nerijetko se govor mržnje opravdava kao sloboda izražavanja, te u ovom radu, kroz studiju slučaja Charlie Hebdoa, autor pokušava povući liniju između te problematiku.
Glavnu poruku autor izvlači iz konačnog dijela rada - Potrebna je, dakle, svijest o opasnosti koju donose riječi i slike, te o potrebi ograničavanja nekih oblika izražavanja, koji su označeni kao mogući poticaj za štetne, diskriminatorne akcije. Riječi, su u velikoj mjeri poticaji za djelovanje. Sloboda govora je vodeće pravilo, te jedno od temelja demokracije, ali istodobno, ona ne znači anarhiju, a samo ostvarivanje prava na slobodno izražavanje ne uključuje i pravo na neopravdano činjenje štete prema drugima i njihovo vrijeđanje. Za pisanje rada, autor se koristi stručnom literaturom, internetskim publikacijama i internetskim izvorima u svrhu sastavljanja proizvoda meta analize, odnosno rada sastavljenog od sekundarnih podataka.
Ključne riječi: Charlie Hebdo, govor mržnje, ljudska prava, mediji, sloboda govora

Literatura i izvori
Stručne publikacije: 1. Obradović, D., 2005: Ljudska prava i sloboda govora. Odsjek za komunikologiju Sveučilišta u Dubrovniku. URL: https://bib.irb.hr/datoteka/443425.139-149_MD4_Medijski_dijalozi_-_Obradovic_Ljudska_prava.pdf)
Internetske publikacije: 1. Labaš, D., Grmuša, T., 2012: Istinitost i objektivnost u informaciji i društveno štetne komunikacijske forme. Kroatologija. 2(2011)2: 87–122 2. Volf, M., 2009: Sloboda govora i moralna odgovornost. Nova prisutnost 7 (2009) 3, 455-458
Internetski izvori: 1. URL: http://www.huffingtonpost.com/erik-bleich/limiting-hate-speech-is-i_b_6459024.html, 29. ožujka 2015. 2. URL: http://www.theguardian.com/media/2015/jan/13/charlie-hebdo-3m-copies-languages-french-magazine, 29. ožujka 2015. 3. URL:http://charliehebdo.fr/en, 30. ožujka 2015.

4. URL:http://www.odjek.ba/index.php:, 30. ožujka 2015. 5. URL: http://www.nn.hr/clanci/sluzbeno/2001/0705.htm, 30. ožujka 2015. 6. URL: http://www.hkv.hr/izdvojeno/komentari/nenad-piskac/19439-slucaj-charlie-hebdo-neprihvatljivim-terorizmom-na-neprihvatljiv-govor-mrznje.html, 29. ožujka 2015. 7. URL: http://www.hkv.hr/izdvojeno/vai-prilozi/i-lj/kraljevic-egon/19445-e-kraljevic-charlie-hebdo-i-sloboda-vrijedanja.html, 29. ožujka 2015. 8. URL: http://www.hkz-mi.hr/List--Mi-/Cemu-sluzi-sloboda-govora-.aspx, 30. ožujka 2015.

Popis ilustracija
Ilustracija 1. Primjer karikature Charlie Hebdo 9

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