Schizophrenia Disrupts Brain Development
Monica Jones
Behavioral Science and Research Method
Southern University and A&M College
Lionel Jolla, MSW, LMSW – Professor
November 18, 2015

Abstract
I embarked on this project because I am interested in how schizophrenia affects the brain and what researchers have discovered as far as medicine for this condition. I am looking for a phenomenon that explains why this disorder is destroying brain volume and how this process can be stopped. Schizophrenia is a baffling disorder that reduces brain volume. When and how does schizophrenia begin is one of my concerns. It is hard to figure out when, why and how schizophrenia begins because it can occur as early as the neonate stage of life and as late as the geriatric stage in life. When schizophrenia starts to decrease brain volume, is the brain fully developed is another one of my concerns. Brain volume decreases in schizophrenia patients naturally, but the antipsychotic medication is a contributing factor also. The antipsychotic medication has been known to have adverse side effects on the brain volume. Have researchers found a medication that has a less severe effect on schizophrenia patient’s brain volume, is another question I am interested in finding the answer too. Schizophrenia is an unexplainable disorder that offers no specific answer to how it occurs. In this study I am hoping to find that specific answer to this brain crippling disorder. MRI scans have been the primary instrument used in examining the brain for signs of schizophrenia for years, but researchers are using other types of imaging machines that may give a better insight to how this disorder is disrupting the brain development.

Schizophrenia Disrupts Brain Development The brain volume of every human being determines certain aspects of their lives. Having less brain volume affects your cognitive skills. What if you couldn’t recognize your family? That’s just one of the effects schizophrenia has on the brain once you’ve been affected by this disorder. While researchers are trying to find a root cause and cure for this disorder, schizophrenia is progressively destroying the brain volume. Schizophrenia also has a helper when it comes to destroying brain volume, antipsychotic medication. Why give a patient medication that further disrupts their brain development? I will discuss the issues with the medication and possible alternatives. At what stage in life does this disorder start and is it inherited? Researchers have provided conflicting answers to the heredity of schizophrenia. I will discuss the possible causes and effects of schizophrenia, and how it disrupts brain development. According to researchers it is not easy to understand what is causing schizophrenia. Gilmore (2010) Schizophrenia has genetic causes, since the most significant risk factor is having a first-degree relative with schizophrenia. Gilmore (2010) Most people with schizophrenia do not have an affected relative, and while the overall genetic contribution to schizophrenia may be large, the contribution of specific genes is very small. Some studies indicate that schizophrenia is likely the result of an interaction between genetic risk and environmental exposures. Schizophrenia is a complex disorder and it is hard to pin point the main cause.
Structural brain abnormalities are well established for schizophrenia with most imaging studies that include gray matter and white matter segmentation reporting smaller cortical gray matter volumes and larger lateral ventricular volumes. Volumetric abnormalities include deficits ranging from 1.5% to 20% for total gray matter volume and enlargements ranging from 5% to 48% for lateral ventricular volume, relative to healthy subjects, and these abnormalities have been generally associated with poor premorbid functioning and poor outcome (Sporn et al., 2014),
To help further understand the cause of schizophrenia and how it disrupts brain function I reviewed research done in the prenatal and neonatal period. In this study researchers compared pregnant mothers with schizophrenia to mothers without schizophrenia. The findings were quite interesting because as stated in the above paragraph schizophrenia is not always genetically linked. The researchers found evidence that there was no difference in the neonates tested. Gilmore, Kang, Evans, Wolfe, and Smith (2010). With that being said once again it is proven that schizophrenia is a complex disorder and it is hard to say what the true cause of the disorder is. Therefore even the neonate stage is not able to give the answers needed to when and how schizophrenia starts.
Based upon my readings schizophrenia is causing a reduction in brain volume. The psychotic medication is also another contributing factor to brain volume decrease in schizophrenia. I reviewed studies in which researchers have evidence of longitudinal brain volume decrease in individuals with schizophrenia.Veijola, Guo, Moilanen, Jasskelainen, and Miettunen (2014). Schizophrenia is not the only cause for brain volume decrease. According to the researchers the psychotic medication plays a major part in brain volume decrease. The brain volume of a schizophrenia individual continues to decrease after the onset of the illness and the psychotic medication contributes to these reductions also. Veijola et al. (2014).
Schizophrenia has many different effects on the brain at different stages in life according to my readings. The affects are sometime subtle according to the researchers. One of the disruptions by schizophrenia interferes with brain recognition. Ragland et al. (2014) Individuals with schizophrenia have selectively impaired verbal episodic memory against a background of more generalized cognitive dysfunction. Crook, Crook, Copolov,and Dean ( 2014) As a result of cognitive dysfunction patients with schizophrenia perform poorly on cognitive tasks, especially those involving short-term memory and attention, which are subserved by neural mechanisms intrinsic to prefrontal cortex circuitry. Researchers suggest that the memory impairment is a result of encoding and retrieval deficits to long term storage problems.
Schizophrenia has a profound impact on the brain volume. Per my readings if an individual has extended periods of relapse it affects the integrity of the brain. Researchers also state that relapse prevention is important and the lowest possible medication dosage should be used to control the symptoms. Andreasen, Ho, Liu, Vora, and Ziebell, (May 2012). There are several references made in regards to how the medication contributes to brain tissue loss. The medication is intended to help but unfortunately it’s doing more harm than good.
Other researchers have found that the medication acts regionally rather than globally on the brain. The brain volume is deteriorating naturally due to schizophrenia and it seems as if there is nothing that can be done to cure or decrease the rate of deterioration. Fourteen out Twenty-six longitudinal studies showed a decline in grey matter after usage of antipsychotic medication. Moncrieff and Leo (2010). The antipsychotic medication is helping to calm the individual, but unfortunately it is helping to decrease brain volume also.
Some studies suggest that schizophrenia is brought on by ones environment. Researchers also suggest that heavy cannabis usage could cause someone to become schizophrenic. There are several other attributes that contribute to schizophrenia and make it increasingly hard to pin point the cause of the disease. Because there is not one specific indication for this disorder, affected individuals per researchers frequently come to clinical attention during late adolescence or early adulthood. Unfortunately the individual with schizophrenia brain volume is being depleted until a clinician realizes the individual has schizophrenia. Schizophrenia is difficult to identify because it is not localized on one part of the brain. Some researchers state that this disorder is a disruption of the emergent, collective properties of normal brain states (Rish, Ceechi, Thirion, & Plaze, 2013). Based upon my readings disruption in brain development by schizophrenia can affect any part brain. Researchers have stated that schizophrenia is decreasing brain volume but there is no clear reason of how. Longitudinal studies have been done and there is still no answer for the decrease in brain volume. The only answer readily available is the disorder is destroying the brain.
Schizophrenia is a complicated disorder. There are no immediate or distinct signs of schizophrenia. Rish et al. (2013) Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder that has eluded characterization in terms of local abnormalities of brain activity, and is hypothesized to affect the collective, “emergent” working of the brain. It seems as if an individual is only immediately checked for signs of schizophrenia only if a close relative is affected. A prime example is the brain volume studies done on healthy childhood schizophrenia siblings compared to other normal children. Their findings showed that the schizophrenia siblings had smaller cerebral volume total compared to the control group. I’m not saying that random test should just be done on everyone but at least exam the cerebral of people who have a family history of schizophrenia.
Studies show different effects schizophrenia has on brain volume when it comes to age and gender. According to researchers males have a higher chance of having the disorder. The study showed females neonates with no differences, but male neonates had significantly larger intracranial, CSF, total gray matter and latter ventricle volumes. Gilmore, Kang Evans, Wolfe, & Smith, (2010). The age also plays a role according to researchers, but the age theory does not seem congruent. Unfortunately there was no explanation to why males are at greater risk for this disorder.
It is also emphasized that there are other contributing factors to schizophrenia by researchers:
Understanding what causes schizophrenia is becoming harder and harder. Researchers have stated that schizophrenia has genetic causes, since the most significant risk factor is having a first-degree relative with schizophrenia. However, researchers state that most people with schizophrenia do not have an affected relative, and while the overall genetic contribution to schizophrenia may be large, the contribution of specific genes is very small. A candidate gene study and more recent genome-wide association study had inconsistent results and indicate, at best, individual genes increase risk by less than 2 times from an average population rate of 1 in 100 to 1.5 in 100. Pre- and perinatal complications and environmental exposures appear to have somewhat stronger effects than individual genes, as prenatal exposure to infection or hypoxia increases risk of schizophrenia from 1 in 100 to 2–4 in 100. Schizophrenia is likely the result of an interaction between genetic risk and environmental exposures (Gilmore, 2014).
Schizophrenia is a brain disorder that does not have a centralized location and that in turn complicates the process of trying to solve the problem:
Schizophrenia is in this sense a paradigmatic case. Unlike some other brain disorders schizophrenia appears to be delocalized and difficult to attribute to a dysfunction of some particular brain areas. The failure to identify specific areas, as well as the controversy over which localized mechanisms are responsible for the symptoms associated with schizophrenia, researchers hypothesized that this disease may be better understood as a disruption of the emergent, collective properties of normal brain states. (Rish et al. 2013). Studies have also shown that illness and intensity of treatment contributes to brain tissue loss. While some researchers
Clinicians have confirmed that previous work indicating that treatment intensity is associated with brain tissue loss; they suggest that clinicians should strive to use the lowest possible dosage to control symptoms. Because they also indicate that relapse is associated with brain tissue loss, they confirm the importance of relapse prevention. They provide empirical confirmation for clinical lore that has been widely accepted but has been lacking in scientific support. They suggest that relapse prevention after initial onset may convey a significant clinical benefit.
The articles I reviewed provided me with a better insight to the causes of schizophrenia. While I have a better understanding of the numerous causes of schizophrenia, I’m still left with unanswered questions. One of my main concerns is the psychotic medication. A medication that destroys the brain volume of a human being is disturbing to me. There was no mention in any article of ever trying to employ some other type of pharmaceutical that would not affect the individual’s brain in such a way horrific way. I was hoping to find research that discussed some type of medical procedure that could possibly correct this mental disorder.
I question the researcher’s process in these articles because there is one main method commonly used to prove the aspect that the brain matter is decreased. It is understood that brain matter is decreased in schizophrenia individuals and that seems to be the recurring conclusion. What I don’t understand is why do research repeatedly to prove what is already known. I expected to find some research on how to fix the problem. There was nothing in any of the research articles that stated that they were working on a solution. The common census seems to be just check the brain matter and dispense the psychotic drug.
In order to study the disruption in the brain development of schizophrenia individuals researchers employed the use of a MRI scan and clinical cognitive assessment to gather data. Whole brain volume change was compared with schizophrenia and control participants in a general population. Researchers explored the whole brain volume change in relation to symptom severity, level of function, cognition, and use of antipsychotic medication. The baseline MRI study was conducted in 1999-2001 when participants were aged 33-35 years. A follow-up was done 9 years later and compared to previous brain scans. Regression models were used to determine if there were any changes in predicted clinical and cognitive changes over time due to brain volume changes. The regression model was also used to predict any changes due to antipsychotic medication usage.
Researchers did a neuroimaging process in which they used SIENA also known as Structural Image Evaluation, using Normalization. The SIENA function was used in FMRIB software library so that researchers could measure the percentage of brain volume change between the baseline and follow-up. The process used was automated but the choice of brain parameters were not. Using SIENA gave researchers an advantage because it uses the perpendicular distance which allows them to see the shift of the brain edge and estimate brain atrophy over time.
A duration study of psychotic symptoms and behavioral change were done on schizophrenic individuals. Researchers did structured interviews with 50 patients that had a first episode of schizophrenia; they also included their family members. Interviews were done within the first month of the patients’ hospitalization. A battery test was done based on the duration of untreated psychotic symptoms and of behavioral changes. The battery scores were correlated with neuropsychological summary scores. The battery test measured lateral ventricular, temporal lobe, and cerebral volumes.
The results from the MRI brain scan and clinical cognitive assessment results revealed a reduction of 0.69% in schizophrenia and 0.49% in controls. The vast majority of the brain reduction for schizophrenia patients was found in the temporal lobe and periventricular area. The decline in brain volume in schizophrenia patients was not associated with functioning level or symptom severity. The follow-up period in regards to the psychotic medication showed signs of brain volume loss. Researchers concluded that brain volume in schizophrenia patients continued after the onset of illness and antipsychotic medication.
The SIENA results revealed brain volume reduction. The reduction in the schizophrenia group brain volume was extremely higher than the control group. The results were also significantly different after researchers categorized the participants by sex, educational level, alcohol use and weight change. Testing showed that 21% with schizophrenia total brain volume reduction was lower than mean of the control participants brain volume. Weight gain and alcohol use didn’t show any brain volume change in schizophrenia. Cognition scores were also significantly lower compared to the control group at baseline. The exposure to antipsychotic medication showed reduction in brain volume.
The research done on the schizophrenia individuals and their family members yielded vastly different results. Researchers found that there were no significant correlations observed between measures of untreated illness and the severity of either cognitive or structural brain definition at baseline. A separate analyses was also done in which the researchers separated the individuals by sex. The separation by sex did not reveal any significant relationships. The schizophrenia patients were untreated for psychosis one full year. The test was done on the brain structure variables and neuropsychological test variables and it revealed no significant differences were found between patients.
Based on what I found the results confirm that schizophrenia does disrupt brain volume. Schizophrenia is a chronic brain disorder that obscures a person’s actual concept of reality and it is a chronic condition that requires lifelong treatment. In my quest for knowledge about this life changing chronic disorder I needed to know when and how this disorder occurs. Through my reading I discovered that schizophrenia can occur as early as the fetal stage of life and it can also be brought on by some traumatic event in life. Doctors prescribe medicine to help schizophrenia patients have some since of reality, but the medication is affecting the brain.
The medication seems to be doing more harm than good. A medication that reduces brain volume will eventually deplete the brain of all cognitive activity. Schizophrenia reduces the life span of an individual and the medication is contributing to that deterioration of the brain. During my research I was also made aware that there are several types of schizophrenia. With there being different types of schizophrenia I wondered how and if the brain is affected in a different way by each type of schizophrenia. If the brain is affected differently shouldn’t the medicine dosage be different. There should be some other form treatment to help these individuals. Although the researchers spoke of different schizophrenia there was no discussion on how each affects the brain. Another concern in regards to schizophrenia is it hereditary and does it skip a generation? Some researchers stated that it was hereditary while others said it was not. It’s still not clear to me if schizophrenia is hereditary or not. A study was done on schizophrenic mother’s babies and they showed no sign of schizophrenia. That led me to believe schizophrenia is just a disorder in genes of the individual based on my readings.
The vast majorities of test being done on the schizophrenic individuals involve MRI scans and other forms of imaging. The scans have proven that there is a decrease in brain volume. I found no research that demonstrated how the researchers are trying to stop the decrease in brain volume. While the scans have shown that the disorder affects different parts of the cerebrum, there was no distinction to what cognitive function is affected by the infected part of the cerebrum. A more in depth study needs to be done on the cerebrum and the effects of schizophrenia on the brain. A longitudinal study was done on 202 schizophrenia patients. They were first episode schizophrenia patients. MRI data scans were done in regular intervals over a period of 7 years. Follow- up data was obtained in 6 month intervals and researchers computed measures of relapse number and duration, and then compared to the MRI measures. Results showed that relapse duration caused a significant loss in cerebral volume. There were also significant effects observed from treatment intensity. Relapse prevention is imperative as well as low dosage of psychotic drugs to decrease the brain volume loss.
In this study researchers used magnetic resonance brain images from 159 patients with schizophrenia and they compared them to 158 healthy individuals between the ages of 16 to 70. Researchers used a linear regression analysis to analyze the relationship between the volumes of brain, grey matter, cerebellum, and lateral and third ventricles with patient age. Results showed cerebral gray matter, prefrontal gray matter, and prefrontal white matter volumes were smaller. The l ateral and third ventricle and peripheral CSF volumes were larger in schizophrenia patients than in healthy comparison subjects. The regression slope between age and gray matter volume in patients was significantly steeper in group by age. Smaller gray matter was more pronounced in older schizophrenia subjects.
Ten normal children and adolescents and nine children and adolescents with early onset schizophrenia were tested by using a voxel-by-voxel and statistical analyses of high resolution structural magnetic resonance images. The statistical parameter of gray matter, white matter, and CSF differences were tested. The resulted revealed that the subjects with early onset schizophrenia had larger ventricles, predominantly in the posterior horns of the lateral ventricles, and midcallosal, posterior cingulate, caudate, and thalamic abnormalities. Volumetric analyses of the lateral ventricles in native image data space confirmed significantly higher volume in posterior, but not anterior, regions. Randomization tests confirmed the overall statistical significance of the group differences and validity of the parametric maps. Researchers state that these findings are generally consistent with the findings of other research groups, but localization of enlarged ventricles specific to the posterior region according to researchers this may be a new finding in the literature on childhood-onset schizophrenia.
Based on the studies I’ve read, I’ve found that brain volume decreases from the onset of a schizophrenic first episode. The length of the schizophrenic episode determines how much brain volume is lost. Researchers for years have tried to pin point the cause of schizophrenia and they’ve discovered several different reasons why one may have this disorder. Some researchers believe schizophrenia is hereditary while others state it is not hereditary. My question is which is it? I’m inclined to believe it’s not hereditary based on my readings in regards to schizophrenia, and the study that was done on several neonates of schizophrenic mothers. The neonates were tested for schizophrenia, and researchers found no signs of schizophrenia. According to the readings the disorder is just a malfunction in the genes. It might seem contradictory of me to say that I’m not ruling out this disorder being hereditary, but the disorder could be linked to some other family member further down the generational line. The disruption in the brain continues to progress whether there is a relapse or not. Unfortunately there was nothing in my readings that stated there was any way to stop the regression of the brain volume.
I am pleased to find out that research is being done in regards to the antipsychotic medication given to schizophrenic patients. For many years schizophrenic patient’s brain volume has regressed at an accelerated rate with the help of antipsychotic medication. As stated in my literature review the stronger the medication the greater the brain volume lost. Researchers have been experimenting with other antipsychotic medication that is not as strong, but it’s effective. I’m not saying there is no brain volume loss, but the regression is not as great.
As a result of the study I have a better understanding of the cause of schizophrenia and how it disrupts the brain function. The researchers used a nominal scale of measurement in which the studies were done by age and gender specification. I would have preferred a nominal scale of measure done not only by age and gender, but by race. None of the studies I reviewed did any testing for the disorder based on race. Just as there are studies that compare hypertension in African Americans to Anglo Saxons in the same retrospect, I think a study comparing African Americans with schizophrenia to Anglo Saxons with schizophrenia may or may not have yielded a wide range of different results. A comparison in regards to the medication and how it affects males versus females may have yielded different results also. The dosage for a male may have been too strong of a dosage for a female. Those are just a few observations I think the researchers should consider. Schizophrenia has a direct effect on the mental health counseling profession. As a future mental health counselor I will need to recognize the signs of schizophrenia and be able to diagnose when necessary. Depending on the severity of the schizophrenia I would be somewhat hesitant about being alone when working with that type of client, just because they hallucinate and have multiple personalities. I’ve had a couple of different views in regards to the way in which the studies were conducted, but I’ve found the answer I was searching for, which is how does schizophrenia disrupt brain development.

Annotated Bibliography
Andreasen, N., M.D., Ph. D., Ho, B., M.D., Liu, D., Ph. D., Vora, A., M.D.& Ziebell, S., B. A.
(May 23, 2012). Relapse Duration, Treatment Intensity, and Brain Tissue Loss in Schizophrenia: A Prospective Longitudinal MRI Study. The American Journal of Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.12050674
Many questions that I had about the effects of schizophrenia were not answered in this reference. My questions were answered in regards to the effect treatment intensity has on brain volume. Researchers also addressed brain loss and how it affects the individual. Compared to the other research I reviewed this information was contradictory in which the researchers stated that there is no research that confirms whether duration or number of relapse contribute to brain loss. That statement was based upon the fact that they had not done any research on this topic. The researchers need to do more fact finding. Crook, J., Ph.D., Crook, E., B.Sc.(Hons.), Copolov, D., M.B.B.S., Ph.D., Dean, B., Ph.D,
(2014). Low Muscarinic Receptor Binding in Prefrontal Cortex From Subjects With Schizophrenia: A Study of Brodmann’s Areas 8, 9, 10, and 46 and the Effects of Neuroleptic Drug Treatment, The American Journal of Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.158.6.918
The information in this research helped me to understand the effects of antipsychotic medication on the cerebrum. Researchers spoke of the medication used by name, which was vastly different from other reviewed studies. The study provided information in regards to the effect of anti-psychotic drugs and how it affects the cognitive aspect of a schizophrenic individual.
The problem I have with the study is that it was done on postmortem individuals and rats. I would have preferred to view the effects of the antipsychotic medication on a living individual. Researchers should have provided information on how the medication affects living schizophrenic patients.
Gilmore, J. (Jan. 2010). Understanding What Causes Schizophrenia: A Developmental
Perspective. The American Journal of Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2009.09111588 This study answered the question whether are not schizophrenia is hereditary. The study covered a common misconception that if you have a first-degree relative with schizophrenia the child will have schizophrenia. Other causes of schizophrenia were identified such as environmental exposures and prenatal exposure to infection.
The researcher discussed many avenues in which individuals obtain the disorder schizophrenia, but it was not clear on how he obtained this information. Although the study spoke of alternate causes of schizophrenia the researcher never mentioned any experiments or case studies. The information provided was helpful but did not offer any specifics such as far as sex, age and gender. Gilmore, J. ,MD; Kang, C., MA; Evans, D. , MA; Wolfe, H., MD; Smith, J, M.D., Lieberman,
J.,M.D., Lin, W., Ph.D., Hamer, R., Ph.D., Styner, M., Ph,D. & Gerig, G., Ph,D., (Sep 2010). Prenatal and Neonatal Brain Structure and White Matter Maturation in Children at High Risk for Schizophrenia. The American Journal of Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09101492
This study involved the neonate stage of life through ultrasounds in order to detect schizophrenia. It was helpful in providing information in regards to the potential start of schizophrenia. The study on neonates showed that there is a greater potential for males to obtain schizophrenia directly from the mother. This study answered questions I had not thought of.
Limitations in this study were inconsistencies of imaging findings of older subjects. According to this study the group was to small given the risk for schizophrenia. There was also an issue with the instrument used to detect gray matter volume. There were inconsistencies in imaging because the instrument functioned at 0.8 power and the differences in gray matter is about 10%. If possible this study should be done again to ensure all information is accurate.
Honea, R., B.Sc., Crow, T., M.B., Ph.D., Passingham, D., Ph.D., Mackay, C., Ph.D., (2014). Regional Deficits in Brain Volume in Schizophrenia: A Meta-Analysis of Voxel-Based
Morphometry Studies, The American Journal of Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.12.2233 The study discussed the deficits in the gray and white matter in schizophrenia individuals which is pertinent to my topic. The researchers did a large study to ensure their results were as accurate as possible. The results yielded favorable results in 31% of the study. Voxel-based morphometry produced clearer results in the study in which that also produced accurate results. Voxel also worked well because researchers used nominal data.
The research had nominal data which consisted of symptom, profile, age and disease duration. I think this research was lacking based upon who they tested. The researchers need to enlarge the type of schizophrenia groups being studied. With the groups they did study they were able to get accurate and concise results.
J. Moncrieff, J. Leo, (2010). A systematic review of the effects of antipsychotic drugs on brain volume, Cambridge Journals, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0033291709992297
This study addressed my concerns in regards to the antipsychotic medication that is given to schizophrenic patients. The studies discussed the loss of brain volume due to the usage of psychotic medication. The study also revealed that drug naïve patients with long-term illness showed no global differences. High risk groups also showed no differences from the control group in the global or lobar brain volumes. The study gave me the answer that I was searching for in regards to the damage the antipsychotic medication doing to the brain.
The strength in this study for me was the differences it showed in taking the medication and not taking the medication. One weakness was the test subjects. The study didn’t state age or gender. There are a few great things covered in this study in which the researchers specify that frontal lobe is most consistently affected. With that being said, what cognitive function is affected when the frontal lobe has been affected? A bit more precise information is needed. Keller, A., M.D., Castellanos, F., M.D., Vaituzis, A., Jeffries, N., Ph.D., Giedd, J., M.D., Rapoport, J., M.D., (2014). Progressive Loss of Cerebellar Volume in Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia, The American Journal of Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.1.128
This studied covered the onset of childhood schizophrenia. The study covered how schizophrenia disrupts brain function from an early age. As early as 12 years old schizophrenia patients has loss of cerebral volume. They also discovered that males have a greater volume loss. This study also discovered that cerebellar loss starts at about the same age as cerebral volume within 1 year. According to researchers, only longitudinal studies yielded accurate results.
Researchers compared patients with childhood onset schizophrenia to adults with schizophrenia, so that they could gage the regression stage. The comparison assisted in my hypothesis of schizophrenia disrupting brain function. There were some weaknesses in the findings. Researcher’s subjects were medicated and that was not a factor that they added into their results. It’s proven that schizophrenia does disrupt brain development, but the researchers should have included the effects medication in their research.
Pol, H., Ph.D., Schnack,H., Ph.D., Bertens, M., M.S., Haren, N., M.S., Tweel, I., Staal, W.,
M.D., Ph.D., Baaré, W., Ph.D., Kahn, R., M.D., Ph.D., (2014). Volume Changes in Gray Matter in Patients With Schizophrenia, The American Journal of Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.159.2.244
The researchers discussed the decline in cognitive function due to schizophrenia. In this study researchers found irrespective of age the cerebral and prefrontal grey matters volumes were smaller in patients with schizophrenia. Researchers also found that white volume matter increases up until the fourth decade. Based upon this study another part of the brain disruption is not take place until the fourth. This journal article gives evidence that supports the fact that the brain may go awry in schizophrenia patients.
The journal article demonstrated strong attributes in the regression of the brain volume. Unfortunately there were some weakness such it was not a longitudinal design. Medication may have been one of the reasons for brain volume decrease and that was not taken into consideration. Unhealthy lifestyles could have also been a contributing factor and it was not considered. Researchers need to incorporate these factors in the study to ensure the information is accurate. Ragland, J., Ph.D.,x
J. Daniel Ragland
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Gur,R.,Ph.D., x
Ruben C. Gur
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Valdez,J, M.S., x
Jeffrey N. Valdez
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Mark Elliott
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Moelter, S., Ph.D., (2014). Levels-of-Processing Effect on Frontotemporal Function in Schizophrenia During Word Encoding and Recognition, The American Journal of Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.10.1840
In this study researchers studied the improvement of the memory with organizational skills. The organizational strategies actually yielded favorable results. The schizophrenia patients showed normal levels of processing effects. Researchers discovered that patients with schizophrenia can improve their word encoding and retrieval when provided with organizational cues. Researchers also did some manipulating to explore semantic processing. The manipulation on the encoding strategies showed schizophrenic and healthy subjects both showed the same benefit from semantic versus perceptual coding. The sole purpose of this study is to normalize brain function in the mist of brain disrupting disorder. The information in this journal answered my question is there any way to help an individual with schizophrenia try to retain memory accuracy.
The journal was strong in the areas organizational testing and techniques. One limitation in this type of study is that encoding is not able to be independently assessed because retrieval is needed to obtain performance indices. According to researchers that limitation can be overcome by neuroimaging. Well why that should have been done to ensure the results were accurate. The researchers also spoke about another limitation with this study due to antipsychotic medication. There needs to be other research done with several limitations.
Rish, I., Cecchi, G., Thyreau, B., Thirion, B., Plaze, M., Paillere-Martinot, ML., et al. (2013)
Schizophrenia as a Network Disease: Disruption of Emergent Brain Function in Patients with Auditory Hallucinations. PLoS One, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0050625
The information in this study discussed how schizophrenia appears to be delocalized. Researchers pointed out that it is difficult to point out the brain area that schizophrenia has affected. Researchers discussed how schizophrenia is abnormal functioning of neurotransmitters. The data analysis in this study was consistent with schizophrenia disrupting topological properties. I was able to use the information in this study to prove schizophrenia disrupts brain development.
Although the journal was informative the researchers did not specify age or gender of the individuals studied. Researchers did several types of studies that were informative and covered reasons for schizophrenia brain disruption. One other strength was astronomical amount of data to support the research. The only thing lacking in this journal in my opinion was variation in subjects.
Sporn, A., M.D., Greenstein, D., Ph.D., Gogtay, N., M.D., Jeffries, N., Ph.D., Lenane, M.,
M.S.W., Gochman, P., M.A., Clasen, L., Ph.D., Blumenthal, J., M.A., Giedd, J., M.D.,
Rapoport, J., M.D., (2014). Progressive Brain Volume Loss During Adolescence in Childhood-
Onset Schizophrenia, The American Journal of Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.12.2181 This journal covered progressive brain volume loss in adolescence. Researchers discussed how there is a striking reduction progressive in cortical gray matter volume in adolescence patients. The information in this journal was very helpful when covering my topic. It was striking to find out that the reduction of grey matter in adolescence is so severe. Researchers stated that the schizophrenia adolescence grey matter was related to premorbid impairment and baseline severity. Schizophrenia in adolescence seem to be worse than schizophrenia in adults.
The only weakness I found with this study was the subjects. The study should have included adults. Researchers should have compared the adolescences results to those of older schizophrenia patients. Although all the participants were adolescences it was an informative study.
Sowell, E., Ph.D., Levitt, J., M.D., Thompson, P., Ph.D., Holmes, C., Ph.D., Blanton, R., B.A.,
Kornsand, D., B.S., Caplan, R., M.D., McCracken, J., M.D., Asarnow, R., Ph.D., Toga, A., Ph.D. , (2014). Brain Abnormalities in Early-Onset Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder Observed With Statistical Parametric Mapping of Structural Magnetic Resonance Images, The American Journal of Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.157.9.1475
Researchers in this study compared childhood-onset schizophrenia with adult-onset schizophrenia. In this study researchers alluded to the fact that a static lesion may have occurred in the perinatal period, and it negatively affected the developmental changes in young adulthood. Post mortem studies were done in which researchers found that abnormalities in brain morphology occur before the onset of psychotic symptoms. They also concluded that it might just be developmental in nature. The morphology found in the children was also found in the adults.
The strengths I found in this journal were the variation in subjects. Researchers took the time to compare the children’s results to the adults. When comparing kids they didn’t use just one sex. I didn’t find any weaknesses in this article in regards to my topic.
Turkington, D., M.D., Kingdom, D., M.D., Weiden, P., M.D. (2014). Cognitive Behavior
Therapy for Schizophrenia, The American Journal of Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.163.3.365 In this journal researchers discuss another form of therapy besides antipsychotic treatment. Researchers have found favorable results with the cognitive behavior treatment. They also covered that all patients may participate because they thought disordered or agitated. It was interesting to find out cultural backgrounds of the clinician and the patient could be problematic. Researchers spoke of Anglo Saxon clinicians not being effective when working with African Caribbeans.
The weakness I found with this journal was that the cognitive behavioral therapy was not performed on anyone who would not take the medication. Also the study did not specify durability of benefits after therapy. The strength I found in this article is that it showed benefits of cognitive behavioral therapy. With this therapy maybe lower dosages of medication can be given.
Veijola, J.; Guo, J.; Moilanen, J.; Jasskelainen, K.; Miettunen, J. (Jul. 2014). Longitudinal
Changes in Total Brain Volume in Schizophrenia: Relation to Symptom Severity,
Cognition and Antipsychotic Medication. PLoS One, DOI: 10.13
Researchers did studies in which brain volume changes and relation to symptom severity. level of function, cognition, and antipsychotic medication was tested. They used a general population based on birth cohort sample with a follow up of almost a decade. The information in this journal was excellent for my paper. Not only did the researchers give me the information needed for brain volume decrease, they also gave me answers to what happens with schizophrenia patients cognitive functions. Researchers also concluded the antipsychotic medication was a huge contributor greater loss of brain volume.
Use of the general population was one of the strengths. Matching the participants by age and birth place was also a strength. One weakness was the evaluation of physical exercise in which researchers did not have data that could have supported a change in brain volume.
Woods, B., M.D., (2014). Is Schizophrenia a Progressive Neurodevelopmental Disorder?
Toward a Unitary Pathogenetic Mechanism, The American Journal of Psychiatry, http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.155.12.1661 In this study the researcher is out to prove that the brain volume loss occurs after maximum brain volume expansion. The researcher checked postmortem brains for answers to brain volume loss. The researcher argues about the brain being able to respond to injury, so therefore schizophrenia is no different according to him. The researcher in this journal refutes several studies that confirm brain volume. This journal forced me to think about other researchers findings.
The first weakness I found was the postmortem studies. If he is trying to prove everyone wrong he should a variety of subjects. He should have done general population sample of schizophrenia individuals with a good control. There were no specific answers to his claim. The conclusion stated no factual findings. There were no strengths in this journal for me.

Appendix

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