...Sex differences in parental investment and sexual selection investigation. Abstract. The study explored how differences in gender affect the partner preferences. Results were obtained through a questionnaire of school-aged individuals. The researchers expected that the results to show a difference in preferences of the characteristics of a partner depending on gender which is linked to the ideas of sex differences in parental investment and sexual selection. The results were consistent with the hypothesis, demonstrating evident difference in partner choice between males’ and females’. Introduction. Sex differences in parental investment and sexual selection are the evolutionary theory processes which suggest that our choice of partners is determined by the extent to which they possess certain features which help us to reproduce and prevent our species from extinction. Sexual selection states that some mates possess certain features that are attractive to the opposite sex, therefore allowing them to get an easier access to mates and pass our genes on to the next generation, such as youth and health in women, which will ensure their fertility, and resoursefulness in men, which means they will be able to provide for the offspring. Sex differences in parental investment suggest that different sexes invest different amounts of resources (time, energy etc.) into their offspring for it to survive, such as females investing far greater into their offspring compared to males due...
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...Discuss sex differences in Parental Investment (24 marks) Parental investment is defined as “any investment made by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offsprings chance of survival.” There are differences in how much each gender invests in their offspring, according to evolutionary theories. Female investment in a child is usually greater. This is because female’s can have limited offspring, whereas men can have potentially an unlimited offspring, as well as this, females also make a greater pre and post natal commitment. The female must carry and nourish the child for 9 months, and then continue breastfeeding and care for the baby once it is born, as the child cannot get this care from the male, the male’s investment is much less, as the male can “opt out” where the mother cannot. The investment made by mothers is also great, as human babies are more dependant and require more care, as they are born less developed than other species. A reason why male investment is less of that than females is because males are always at risk of cuckoldry – investing resources in another man’s child – where females are always certain the child is theirs. Therefore the males invest less in the child, to reduce the risk of cuckoldry and therefore reduce potential resource wasting. Additionally, the risk of cuckoldry means there is more concern from the males over the sexual fidelity of mates, so as their investment is well spent. Conversely, a women’s concern is more prominently...
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...Parental investment is defined as “any investment made by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offsprings chance of survival.” There are differences in how much each gender invests in their offspring, according to evolutionary theories. Female investment in a child is usually greater. This is because female’s can have limited offspring, whereas men can have potentially an unlimited offspring, as well as this, females also make a greater pre and post natal commitment. The female must carry and nourish the child for 9 months, and then continue breastfeeding and care for the baby once it is born, as the child cannot get this care from the male, the male’s investment is much less, as the male can “opt out” where the mother cannot. The investment made by mothers is also great, as human babies are more dependant and require more care, as they are born less developed than other species. A reason why male investment is less of that than females is because males are always at risk of cuckoldry – investing resources in another man’s child – where females are always certain the child is theirs. Therefore the males invest less in the child, to reduce the risk of cuckoldry and therefore reduce potential resource wasting. Additionally, the risk of cuckoldry means there is more concern from the males over the sexual fidelity of mates, so as their investment is well spent. Conversely, a women’s concern is more prominently over emotional fidelity, as they want to increase...
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...PSYCHOLOGY REVISION Eating behaviour * Attitudes to food and eating behaviour * Explanations for the success and failure of dieting * Neural mechanisms in eating behaviour Cognitive development * Paget’s theory of cognitive development * Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development * Applications of cognitive developments theories to education Relationships * The formation of romantic relationships * The maintenance of romantic relationships * The breakdown of relationships * Sexual selection * Sex differences in parental investment * The influence of childhood on adult relationships * The influence of culture on romantic relationships Discuss attitudes to food and/or eating behaviour (24 marks) Social learning theory emphasises the impact that observing people has on our attitudes and behaviour. As children's’ parents usually provide food for them, it seems obvious that parental attitudes to food will affect their children's attitudes to them. Children also learn what to eat by watching their parents. This can be explained by social learning theory. This occurs when children observe their parents eating. In this sense, the parents act as eating role models. Observing parents getting rewarded by enjoying eating certain foods, the children learn to imitate these food preferences as they expect to receive similar rewards by doing so. This theory would therefore argue that children should show similar preferences...
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...SEXUAL Strategies Theory: An Evolutionary Perspective on Human Mating Winifred Gordon Southern New Hampshire University Sexual Strategies Theory: An Evolutionary Perspective on Human Mating Summary Because of the lower level of minimum parental investment incurred by men, short-term mating will represent a larger component of men’s sexual strategies than women’s sexual strategies (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). An Evolutionary Perspective on Human Mating by Buss & Schmitt examines the background on evolutionary theory when it relates to the human mating strategies. The article expands on how both men and women have particular psychological mechanism that triggers which relationships, short term or long term will help them choose a partner for life, when it relates to mating relationships. The article discussed the effects on long-term relationships and how these types of relationships, compares to the short term, which are known to be called brief affairs, one stand, or temporary liaison time lengths. “Long temporal durations, however, mating relationships can last for a few months, a few days, a few hours, or even a few minutes” (Buss & Schmitt, 1993). The article described key hypotheses and predictions that give an outlined summary on theories that were empirically tested that identify sensitive problem in relations with sexual accessibility fertility, commitment seeking and avoidance, paternity certainty, male and females value, and parental investment. In comparison...
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...(Buss, Schmitt, 1993). Buss and Schmitt (1993) have split mating into two categories, short-term and long-term. In the context modern society, a short-term mating mechanism would be a one night stand, where two people have sex but do not stay in contact afterwards. A long-term mating mechanism would be marriage, where the couple stay together and raise their offspring. Prior to the work on these complex strategies, the theories of human mating were very simplistic, often contradictory, and had little coherence (Buss 2013). Similarity theory states individuals were attracted to others who share the similar personalities and interests, while complementarity theory states the exact opposite (Buss 2013). The famous Freudian theory states that an individual chooses their mate primarily on their resemblance to their opposite-sex parent, however, this has not recently been supported by evidence (Buss, Schmitt 1993). Another theories state that an individual generally mates with people they come into contact with on a regular basis, as proximity is often a...
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...Sex Differences in Jealousy: An Evolutionary Perspective Jealousy is an intense emotional reaction that affects all types of people in different cultures all over the world (Buss, 2001). Having a wide variety of implications, jealousy is most often associated with negative, anxiety induced behaviours, and in relationships it is most often in response to a relationship threat by a third party with desirable qualities. Current literature on the topic suggests that there is a general consensus that the main function of jealousy is to protect a valuable relationship from loss to a desirable rival (Buss & Haselton, 2005). However despite this primary function, there are clear sex differences with regards to thoughts about emotional and sexual infidelity (Daly, Wilson & Weghorst, 1982). There exists a lot of evidence to support the finding that men find sexual infidelity worse than emotional infidelity, whereas women find the opposite (Buss et al., 2001; Daly et al., 1982). It has been found that 60% of men choose sexual infidelity as worse, and 74% of women choose emotional infidelity (Sagarin et al., 2012). Moreover, these findings have been replicated in numerous countries, which encourage the perspective that these sex differences are evolutionary based (Buunk & Angleitner, 1996). The parental-investment model states that these differences occur because men want to be sure of the paternity of their children, not invest their resources to genetically unrelated offspring...
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...the psychology Welcome & Introduction If your reading this your studying for AQA A Psychology Psya3 and the Relationship topic is one of the ones you have chosen. Its a wise move I think as its one of the easier ones to learn. I generally advise picking something you can relate to because you have some grounding for it as opposed to learning whole new concepts or ways of thinking on subject matter thats completely foreign. It tends to save you time in getting your head around things. A bit about me - My name is Sajan Devshi and I self-taught myself AQA A A Level Psychology between 2011-2012 achieving an A* grade and 100% in both Psya3 & Psya4. You can check out my certificate on my website at http://www.loopa.co.uk as well as get my other model answers too for the other topics in Psya3 and Psya4. But enough about me - you can learn about me in more depth on my website - lets get on with the show and onto the the overview of this topic, structuring and the model answers themselves too. S ECTION 1 Memorising Your Model Answers This is going to be pretty much your hardest task and with the help of this book hopefully it becomes more manageable. People have various ways they memorise things and it is entirely up to you. Memorising Essays U SING A CRONYMS + P RACTICE The method of memorising the essays is the same across all my model essay answers. I employ the concept of “chunking” alongside the use of “acronyms”. Combined this helped me memorise ...
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...The differences between the genders’ approaches towards intimacy and interpersonal bonds is one that continues to be extensively studied in psychology. Gender has always provided us with a perspective through which we interpret the world, mainly love and sexuality. These two aforementioned features are intricately entwined and have heavily influenced much of extant research which attempts to explain the impact of love and sexuality on a sociobiological level and on the formation of gender expectations. This essay aims to investigate and explain how attitudes with respect to relationships are affected by gender. In order to achieve this, a compilation of studies that assess the correlation between interpersonal relationships and gender will be considered. Finally, the essay will discuss possible ideas for future development in this field. Although a fine line exists between love, lust and attraction, these three components are often misinterpreted for one another. The need to belong is an evolutionary human instinct, and one that characterises an individual’s chances of survival. It is essential to acknowledge the common attributes of the three preceding elements which determine relationship statuses, so a clearer understanding can be achieved when considering the dissimilarities in attitudes between the genders. Conventionally, love has always been thought to be undemanding and trivial whereas attraction, or borderline infatuation, is affiliated with connections on a deeper...
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...Financial Stability and Health in Determining Relationship Commitment Ariel Luna Western Washington University Abstract This study is interesting in determining which characteristics in a male potential partner a female values more when looking at financial stability and health when considering that partner as a contender in a committed romantic relationship. With a sample of 56 single heterosexual females and 4 single bisexual females all with a mean age of 20, a 2x2 factorial design study was conducted on relationship commitment with financial stability and health in mind. The study found that females looked at health more in the consideration of a male as a life-long partner and that financial stability was not a factor when considering a committed romantic relationship. Financial Stability and Health in Determining Relationship Commitment The years of Late Adolescence, what Arnett (2000) terms Emerging Adulthood, can be characterized as people between the ages of 18-24 who are past high school, possibly in college, but not quite into adulthood. This time in a person’s life is typically when young adults start looking towards their future and everything that may be involved in it. This may include future careers, traveling endeavors, or selecting future mates. For those who may be currently thinking about who their future mate is going to be and for those who are assessing what characteristics they would like their...
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...THESE IMPLY: * 1. Common Ancestry * 2. Changes through time *Natural selection occurs when 3 conditions are met; results in evolution * 1. There is variation in a trait * (Ex. Beetle color) * 2. The trait is heritable * (Ex. Brown beetles tends to have brown babies) * 3. There is differential reproductive success, and not all individuals reproduce to their full potential * (Ex. Green beetles are selected against by natural and Brown beetles are selected for- so they reproduce more) *Adaption: A trait that increases the ability of an individual to survive and reproduce compared with individuals without the trait Adaption in an evolutionary context: An inherited trait that makes an organism more fit in its abiotic and biotic environment, and that has arisen as a result of the direct action of natural selection for its primary function. Ex. Mimicry of the non-toxic king snake to evade predators Natural selection leads to Adaptions * Adjustments or changes In behavior, physiology, or structure of an individual organism to become more suited to an environment * Vestigial Structure: * Feature that was an adaption for the organism’s ancestor, but that evolved to be non-functional because the organism’s environment changed *Exaptation * Traits that serves one purpose today, but evolved under different selection conditions and served a different function...
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..."Why is Sex Fun? is the best book on the subject I've read. This lively exploration of our sexual heritage offers fascinating reading for anyone curious about why lovers do what they do." -Diane Ackerman, author of A Natural History of the Senses "I am so jealous of Jared Diamond, for he writes with such an elegant simplicity! Here, he takes a loot at the endlessly fascinating topic of human sexuality His convincing arguments should persuade xm that there are very special reasons why we evolved to use sex for recreation as well as for procreatim whereas most other mammals are denied that pleasure.... It is a great little book, by one of the worlds foremost biological philosophers." -ROGER Shohl Professor of Physiology Monash University Australia "Once again Jared Diamond provides us with answers to questions we may never have stopped to ask, but wish we had. In this long essay Diamond explains that recreational sex, while not unique to humans, is a rare behavior in the animal world. Above all, we learn, sexual activity divorced fron procreation is not only part of what it is to be human, but the very crux of our evolutionary success." -Bettyaxn Kevles. author of Naked to the Bonn Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Centnty The Science Masters Series is a global publishing vonture consisting of original science books written by leading scientists and published by a worldwide team of twenty-six publishers assembled by John Brockman. The series was conceived by Anthony Cheetham of Orion...
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...* Natural Selection * Variation * Inherited * Selection * Population will become better adapted to a particular environment. Evolutionary Psychology - 1992 An evolutionary psychological approach: 1. Humans are part of biology. 2. There is nothing special about the human brain 3. Human nature is innate 4. Human behavior is the product of both innate human nature and the environment. Cognitive Psychology 1. Actions are caused by mental processes. 2. The mind is a computer. 3. Humans descended from an ape like ancestor. Heredity 1. Makes offspring look like parents. 2. Genes are written in a molecule called DNA. 3. Children obtain 50 % of their genetic make-up from each parent. Mutations: 1. Mutations occur when a gene inside a cell changes. The evolution of the mind: Cognitive psychology and evolutionary biology meet when we begin discussing the mind evolving through the process of natural selection. What were the adaptive problems faced by our hominid ancestors? 1. Shelter 2. Food The Savannah Principal 1. The savannah principle holds that the human brain has undergone virtually little or no change in the last 10,000, years. Sugars and fats contain calories for survival. Week # 2 Sexual Selection Choosing a mate or mates is one of the most important decisions that one will make in one’s lifetime and one of Darwin’s main components of sexual selection. Female Choice...
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...males and females do not invest equally. A males investment is far more little than a females as males tend to produce many gametes and can potentially have unlimited amount of offspring. On the other hand female gametes are of little number and more costly to produce, for example she cannot produce another offspring whilst she is still pregnant. As a result females are choosier concerning mates. Males compete for quantity of females whereas females compete for quality of males and their resources. As females invest a lot during both prenatal and post-natal pregnancy (feeding etc.) they aim to look for cues that men have resources for their offspring to survive (e.g. socio economic status). According to Buss (2003) females aim to choose mates who are able to provide resources, can physically protect her and the offspring and show good promise as a parent. Males, on the other hand, have short term preferences. They prefer short term relationships in order to produce as many offspring as possible. Men seem to be less choosy and show decreased attraction following sex, which many believe is an evolutionary trait to prevent them from staying too long with one woman. Men generally look for cues that suggest fertility, such as a low waist to weight ratio and youth. When males do invest parentally through resources, they are under pressure to protect themselves from the possibility of cuckoldry. Because males make a considerable investment in their children, they have greater concern...
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...important because it keeps me from bumping into things and being able to tell at what pace things are coming at. A major thing that helps me do everything in my every day life is being dexterous because having a power grip and being bipedalism helps in being able to hold things and to use them as tool for example being able to write is given to the power grip. Bipedalism gives me the availability to stand up right and walk on two feet being able to play sports is one example. Another one would be my teeth it allows me to eat food by using my canines that are much smaller than other mammals this allows be to be able to chew my food better and I am able to eat a variety of food not just one specific category. Every primate mammal has a parental investment it is not all the same but with me my parents growing up teach me from right and wrong I grow up doing what they do because I watch them do it and i think it is the right way. This leads to how I socially express myself I am able to express myself tell when I am mad angry and sad. This also helps me to be able to build different relationships with others I am able to use body language to communicate but also able to vocalize. I also demonstrate stronger relationships through physical contact a pat on the...
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