Chapter One
Introduction

1.1 Introduction
Displaced people fall on new life struggle by losing their social capital and network due to river bank erosion (Field observation). For this reason, in this study, the research problem was loss of social capital, network and role of safety net of the displaced people by River Bank Erosion (RBE). The main objective of this study was to measure the loss of social capital including network due to RBE, to explore the changing situation (social, economic and political) that displaced people face due to loss of social capital including network by RBE, to discover how do displaced people create new social capital including network and to assess the role of safety net to meet present crisis.
In the context of socio-economic, geographical and ecological condition, the social capital including network and safety net is more important tool to meet any natural crisis. In this study village, the displaced people lost their material object as well as social capital and network. That’s why this study has focused on social capital including network and safety net programs in the context of river bank erosion.
In this research problem, the word social capital has been considered as relationships, connections, links, and affiliations among displaced people and network has been referred as an informal relationship among persons, individuals and groups and safety net has been referred as the roles/programs of government and non government organizations to meet any natural crisis.
In chapter one and two, a short introduction, study background and methodology of this research have been discussed. Here also contains the study background of safety net programs in the context of Bangladesh, the causes and the seasonality of River Bank Erosion (RBE). The ecological, oral and historical, demographic, economic and occupational, family and religious profiling of the study area have been discussed in chapter three. In chapter four, features of river bank erosion, forms of social capital and network, measuring and comparative analysis of the loss of social capital including network of study village caused by RBE have been discussed. Impact of losing social capital including network on their economic, social and political livelihood has been presented in chapter five. Methods or ways of creating social capital by displaced people and the assessment of safety net programs in study village have been presented in chapter six. And finally, conclusion in an analytical viewpoint and as a young researcher some recommendations have been incorporated in chapter seven.

1.2 Background
Bangladesh is a river-locked country; especially in lower Bengal there are too many rivers that one can find a river in every 25 miles either long or small. In Bangladesh the total length of river is 24180 km and here are 310 rivers in number. These rivers have great influence changing social, cultural, economic, political, and kinship relationships of Bangladesh. The change of the way of rivers is remarkable in the socio-economic history of Bangladesh. For it, many cities and ports have been established and still doing it.

Bangladesh lies at the confluence of three great rivers of the world, the Brahmaputra-Jamuna, the Ganges-Padma, and the Meghna, and their numerous tributaries and distributaries. River Meghna – the third largest river of Bangladesh- drains out of one of the heaviest rainfall areas of the world. River Barak bifurcates into two rivers near Bangladesh border, e.g. the Surma and the kushyara, which again join at Markulia above Bhairab Bazar and takes the name Meghna. The Barka- meghna has a length of about 950 km of which 340 km lies in Bangladesh. Total drainage area of the Meghna at Bhairab Bazar is about 80,200 sq.km of which 36,200 sq.km lie in Bangladesh (Environmental Aspects of Surface Water Systems of Bangladesh, edited by R. Atiq, H. Saleemul and C. R. Gordon, 2000, UPL, Dhaka, Bangladesh).

The Meghna estuary is a highly dynamic place of erosion and accretion. Although there is a long term trend in gain of new lands, a huge amount of fertile land, in particular the old land is exposed to erosion due to migration and widening of the river system. Erosion is also a problem in island coastal rivers in Barisal, Patuakhali, Bhola, barguna, Jhalakathi and Pirujpur districts of the Barisal division, resulting in hundreds of families homeless and shelter less (PDO-ICZMP, 2004a).

River has both negative and positive aspects in the context of Bangladesh. River Erosion is one of negative aspects of it and it is the major problem of riverbank people of Bangladesh. Bhola, the island district of Bangladesh, was of 6400 skm in area in 1960s. 3000 skm of it have been inundated in last 40 years only. If this rate of erosion continues entire Bhola would be damaged (Climate Change: River Erosion in Bangladesh, 2000, CEGIS, Coast Trust, Dhaka, Bangladesh).

The study area is a coastal Andirpar village under Monpura upazila in Bhola district. This village is eroded from three sides: north, east and west. So this village is more erosive area (Land Office, 1 no. Monpura Union Parishad, 2013). The people of this village are displaced due to river bank erosion and living Kalatali Char under Monpura upazila. And Char land also more vulnerable area. On the other hand, social capital is an important resource for vulnerable people in the context of Bangladesh. But, in this study area, displaced people due to RBE have lost their social capital including network and it has affected their social, economic and political livelihood. Without these, researcher has born and grew up in this village. Researcher is so much integrated with this village and villagers. So, researcher has seen their frustrated, puzzled and vulnerable face by losing their social capital and network due to river bank erosion. In this context, researcher’s focal point of the study was to measure the loss of social capital including network due to RBE, to explore the changing situation (economic, social and political) that displaced people face due to loss of social capital and network by RBE, how do displaced people create new social capital including network and to assess the role of safety net to mitigate present crisis. That’s why this village has been selected for this study.

1.2.1 Public Safety Net Context and River Bank Erosion
People living in poverty and hunger are extremely vulnerable to crises. Social safety nets have traditionally been used to help people through short-term stress and calamities. They can also contribute to long-range development. Targeted programs such as food-for-work, school feeding, microcredit and insurance coverage can help alleviate long-term food and financial insecurity, contributing to a more self-reliant, economically viable population. Bangladesh, right from its birth, has eyes glued on poverty alleviation and reduction of inequality and injustice. Pro-poor growth has been the expressed agenda of all political regimes. But there are some controversies too, donor agencies are always confronting about giving money or commodity to poor without any work. Although they have some good points, govt. is running several programs.

1.2.1.1 Public Safety Nets
Public Safety Nets or “socio-economic safety nets” are non-contributory transfer programs seeking to prevent the poor or those vulnerable to shocks and poverty from falling below a certain poverty level. Safety net transfer include: cash transfers, food aid programs, conditional cash transfers, price subsidies for food, electricity, or public transport, public training, self employment, child support, health voucher, and education program etc. Wikipedia cites that, safety net programs can play four roles in development policy: * Safety nets redistribute income to the poorest and most vulnerable, with an immediate impact on poverty and inequality. * Safety nets enable households to make productive investment in their future that they otherwise miss, e.g. education, health, and income generating opportunities. * Safety nets help household to manage risk, at least harmful coping strategies and at most providing an insurance function which improves livelihood options. * Safety nets allow governments to make choices that support efficiency and growth.
1.2.1.2 Public Safety Nets in the Context of Bangladesh Bangladesh is developing county with a large population. The average farm size is much smaller now than before with increasing landless and rise in the number of marginal farmer. Bangladesh is prone to natural disaster and is being affected by river bank erosion (RBE) and thereby forcing people to migrate to other areas, especially to the overcrowded Dhaka city. The labor force participation rate is 59 percent, male 87 percent and female only 29 percent. The total employed labor force was around 47 million in 2006 males 36 million and females only 11 million. Unemployment rate is 4 percent. However there is considerable underemployment (25%). Forty percent of the population lives below the poverty line. So, Bangladesh has a wide spectrum of social safety net programs provided by the government. Social safety net programs are designed to provide support for the vulnerable section of the society. Social safety nets in Bangladesh, like elsewhere in the world have two basic objectives, such as: protecting individual from falling into poverty beyond a certain level through redistribution and correcting market failure. There are 30 specifically designed social safety net programs directly operated by the Government of Bangladesh. However, Bangladesh has more than 30 social safety net programs, the exact number fluctuates as new programs are added and old programs dropped / suspended at regular intervals.
Some of the major SSNPs of Bangladesh Government are: cash for work (CFW), food for work (FFW), vulnerable group development (VGD), vulnerable group feeding (VGF), old age allowance (OAA), rural maintenance program, freedom fighters' allowance, open market sale (OMS), test relief (TR), gratuitous relief (GR), allowance for the financially insolvent disabled, primary education stipend program (PESP), female secondary assistance program, stipend for dropout students and many other. Right from the beginning of Bangladesh, every government in every budget increasing expenditure for social safety net programs. However, the growing awareness of the importance of social safety nets in developing countries has not been translated into effective action because of the failure of traditional social welfare ministries to effectively reach and engage the poor (Conning and Kevane, 2000). However, The Financial Express on March 17, 2013 has reported that, Experts at a seminar Sunday said the government’s existing social safety net programs have failed to reduce poverty at the desire level in the absence of proper implementation mechanism, coupled with the problem of inadequate fund allocation. From the above discussion it can be say that, though government provides social supports for vulnerable people but not as much successful as the government reports demand.

1.2.2 River Bank Erosion (RBE): A Disaster of Coastal Delta
Bangladesh is one of the largest deltas in the world, with a network of 230 rivers and rivulets and a coastline of 710 kilometers, hosting a unique diversity of ecosystem (NPA report 2006). Coastal zones refer to areas where land and sea meet (Islam, 2004). According to the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan (ICZMP) of Bangladesh, out of 19 coastal district (147 upazilas), a total of 48 upazilas in 12 districts that are exposed to the sea and or lower estuaries, are defined as the exposed coast and the remaining 99 upazilas of the coastal districts are termed interior coast (cited in NPA report 2006). In Bangladesh, about 36 million people live in the coastal areas and livelihood primarily depends on agriculture, fishery, forestry, near shore transportation and salt farming etc. It is prone to severe natural disasters, such as river bank erosion, cyclone, storm surge, floods, etc. In combination with other natural and man-made hazards, such as erosion, the high arsenic contents of groundwater, water logging, water and soil salinity and various forms pollution, these disasters have made coastal dwellers very vulnerable (Islam, 2004) and made the whole coastal and marine environment threatened. Bhola is a district of southern coastal region of Bangladesh in which study village is included.

1.2.2.1 Causes of River Bank Erosion
River Bank Erosion occurs through a combination of three mechanisms: (1) sub-aerial weakening and weathering (2) fluvial erosion and (3) mass failure. Sub-aerial processes are often viewed as ‘preparatory’ processes, weakening the bank prior to fluvial erosion (Mengoni and Mosselman, 2006). Sub-aerial processes dominate in the upper reaches, fluvial erosion in the middle, and mass failure in the lower reaches of a river. Fluvial erosion is the detachment of particles from the bank surface by the direct action of the flowing water; mass failure is the collapse of bank material under the action of gravity; weakening processes are modification of soil characteristics that increase bank erodibility, and thus induce bank erosion (Throne, 1982). Some of the major causes are: * Due to heavy siltation in the south-western part of Bangladesh and newly formed char land, the flows of rivers are changed to another direction. As a result the bank of rivers is facing new stress which exposes them into erosion. * Deforestation along with the major river system of Bangladesh and lack of mangrove plantation. * Due to combined sudden flood, heavy rainfall and downwards freshwaters. * Due to lack of planned and necessary embankment. * Due to lack of national forecasting system for the erosion. And * As the result of the Green House Gases (GHGs) emission, the atmosphere is getting warm day by day resulting the glacier liquefies. The huge quantities of melted water (Climate Change: River Erosion in Bangladesh, 2000, CEGIS, Coast Trust, Dhaka, Bangladesh).

Figure: 1 Map showing the River Bank Erosion Area of Bangladesh

Source: http//www.livingwiththejamuna.com

1.2.2.2 Local Knowledge Based (LKB) Causes of RBE
River bank erosion is major problem for coastal area’s people. It occurs caused by natural as well as man-made. In my study area, local people have said three causes of RBE. Such as: * Srot (tidal surge): During rainy season the Srot is getting high that affect the coast and causes river bank erosion. * Small Char: According to local people, in the north, east and west sides of monpura, situated several small chars which creates barrier to the general flow of river water, and it affect mainland and causes RBE. * Pap (sins): Another cause of RBE is pap. According to local people, when the number of sins is increasing in such a land, Allah gives order it to erode as to make it sacred.

1.2.2.3 Seasonality of River Bank Erosion (LKB)
Rainy season in Bangladesh, especially June 15th to August 15th level of RBE is high in RBE prone/ coastal areas. During summer RBE level becomes low. But because of climate change with the certain rain the situation is getting worst day by day. The following figure shows the seasonality of RBE.

Figure: 2 Seasonality of River Bank Erosion (LKB)

Source: Fieldwork, March, 2013
Above figure shows that, in study area, 80% river bank erosion occurs on 15th June to 15th October. More specifically, 60% river bank erosion occurs from July to September because of heavily rainfall.

1.3 Objectives of the study
1.3.1 Broad Objective:
The main objective of the study is to measure the loss of social capital and network, its impact on their social, economic and political livelihood, how displaced people create new social capital and network, and to assess the role of safety net to meet the situation in the context of river bank erosion.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives * To measure the loss of social capital and network because of river erosion. * To explore the changing situation (the impact of losing social capital and network on social, economic and political livelihood) that displaced people face due to loss of social capital and network by river bank erosion. * To discover how do they create new social capital and network. * To assess the role of safety net programs to mitigate present situation.

1.4 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework:
Theories are constructed to explain social phenomena. A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts. Within the general framework of anthropological approach there exists a wide range theoretical perspective of studying and analyzing problems. The theoretical framework is supposed to help the reader make logical sense of the relationships of variables and factors have been relevant to the problems. So, conceptual and theoretical frameworks have been discussed below:

1.4.1 Theoretical Framework
The concept of social capital occupies a remarkable place in the field of social science literature over the last few decades. Social capital refers to the resources such as trust and solidarity, social network, information and communication, association, ideas, supports that individuals are able to obtain by virtue of their relationship and interaction with other people. These “resources” or “capital” are social meaning that they are only accessible in and through these relationships, unlike physical(tool, technology) and human capital ( education, knowledge and skill) , which are essentially the properties of individuals (Grootaert el. al., 2004:3).

Scholars were in the opinions that building social capital in the society can help solve many critical problems. Formation of social capital takes place in given society through intersection, relationships, network and cooperation among human beings. It does not grow overnight rather it grows over a long time through its social customs and traditions, norms and values, culture and regions. In the flowing paragraphs the evolution of the concept, some definitions, types and sources of social capital mare explained below.
1.4.1.1 Evolution of the concept of Social Capital
The concept of social capital is not a new concept. the origin and the intellectual history of the concept can be traced back to the eighteen and nineteen centuries and has deep and drives roots in philosophy , economics, sociology, anthropology and political science literature ( Grootaert andVan Bastelaer, 2002a; Healy and Hampshire , 2002; Adam and Roncevic, 2003). Most authors dealing with social capital argrues that L.J. Hanifan, a social reformer, first coined the term, “social capital” in 1916. The basic essence of social capital can be found in the writing of many great scholars’ \ philosophers such as Aritotle, Locke, Rousseau, Durkheim, Marx, Tocqueville, J.S. Mill, Toennies, Weber, Simmel, Adam smith, Hofsteed and so on. In the modern time, the concept of social capital has received unprecedented acceptance and application to diverse areas after publication of the landmark book by Robert Putnam in 1993, i.e. Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy.
Robert Putnam defines social capital in a broader framework. According to Putnam (2000; 19), “Whereas physical capital refers to physical objects and human capital refers to the properties of individuals, social capital refers to connections among individuals – social network norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. In that sense, social capital is closely related to what some have called “civic virtue.” The difference is that “social capital” calls attention to the fact civic virtue is most powerful when embedded in a sense of network of reciprocal social relations. A society composed of many virtuous but isolated individuals is not necessarily rich in social capital. Putnam underscores the importance of social capital in many ways.
Firstly, “social capital allows citizens to resolve collective problems easily. People often might be better off if they cooperate with each other”.

Secondly “social capital greases the wheels that allow communicative to advance smoothly. Where people are trusting and trustworthy, and where they are subject to repeated interactions with fellow citizens, everyday business and social transactions are less costly.”

And thirdly, “social capital improves people’s lot by widening their awareness many ways in which their fates are linked. When people lack connection to others, they are unable to test the veracity of their own views, whether in the give or take of casual conversation or in more formal deliberation. Without such an opportunity, people are more likely to be swayed by their worse impulses.

Bourdieu (1983: 249) elaborates that social capital as “the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of less institutionalized relationship of mutual acquaintance and recognition” Bourdieu wrote from within a broadly Marxist framework. He tried to distinguish three forms of capital: economic, cultural and social. A basic concern of Bourdieu was to explore the processes making for unequal access to resources and deferential in power and the ways in which this fad into class formation and the creation of elites, the procession of social capital did not necessarily run around side that of economic capital, but it still was, in his view an attribute of elites a means by particular networks held on to power and advantage.

James Coleman (1994: 302) defines social capital by its function. He opines that “social capital is not a single entity, but a variety of different entities, having two characteristics in common: they all consist of some aspect of a social structure, and they facilited certain actions of individuals who are within the structure”. Coleman’s (1998) refuting the views of Bourdieu argues that people living in marginalized communities or belonging to working class could also benefit from its possession. Drawing upon a basic of rational choice theory, Coleman (1990, 1994) views social capital as part of a eider exploration of the nature of social structures. He highlighted that the possibility thrust different institutions and social structures were better suited to the cultivation of reciprocity, trust and individual action than others,. He underscores the role of the family and kinship networks, and religious institutions in the creation of social capital.

The World Bank (1995: 10) explains social capital as “the ability of people to work together for common purposes in groups and originations’ social capital can be defined simply as “the existence of certain set of informal values or norms shared among members of a group that permit cooperation among them” (Fukuyama, 1997) Woolcock (1998: 153) term social capital as “the information, trust and norms of reciprocity inhering in one’s social networks”.

Burt (1992: 9 ) finds that social capital grow in “ friends , colleagues, and more general contacts through purposes whom people receive opportunities to use their financial and human capital “ According to Brehm and Rahn ( 1997: 999) , social capital forms through “ the web of cooperative relationships between citizens that facilitate resolution of collective action problems” Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998: 243) dub social capital as “ the sum of actual and potential resources embedded within , available through , and derived from the network of relationships possessed by and individual and social unit. Social capital thus comprises both the network of the assets that may be mobilized through that network: Schiff (1992: 160) define social capital as “the set of elements of the social structure that affects relations among people and are inputs or arguments of the production and utility function”

Very broadly, social capital refers to the social relationships between people that enable productive outcomes (Szreter. 2000). The term social capital refers to those stocks of social trust, norms and networks that people can draw upon to solve common problems. The creation of social capital has been embraced as a solution for social problems as diverse people, with some norms of reciprocity. Social capital is fundamentally about how people interact with each other (Dekker and Uslaner, 2001) Adler and Kwon (2002: 23) define social capital as “the goodwill available to individuals or groups. Its source lies in the structure and content of the actor’s social relations. Its effects flow from the information, influence and solidarity it makes available to the actor”.

The above definition reveals that social capital is an admixture of a wide range of issues and it is multidimensional, which have a bearing on history and culture, social structures, family, education, environment, mobility, economics, social class, civil society, consumption, values, networks, associations, political society, institutions, policy, and social norms at various levels. Social capital does not have a clear, undisputed meaning, for substantive and ideological reasons (Dolfsma and Dannreuther, 2003; Foley ad Edwards, 1997). For this reason there is no set and commonly agreed upon definition of social capital and the particular definition adopted by a study will depend on the discipline and level of investigation (Robinson et al, 2002).

Based on the above definitions , it can be summarized that the concept of social capital embodies a huge range of social resources such bridging , bonding, linking diverse people getting together by virtue of mutual sense of trust, network, reciprocity, cooperation, relationship, friendship, interaction, solidarity, inclusion , empowerment, participation, information and communication, groups and associations. Social capital fosters a sense of togetherness among human beings in a given society towards solving myriad socio- economic problems, bringing change and transformation, and ensuring mutual benefits each other.

1.4.1.2 Social Capital: Its Types
Michael Woolcock (2001), a social scientist from Harvard and the World Bank and Aldrige, Herpern ET. al. (2002) has made distraction different types of social capital. According to them there are three types of social capital with different meaning and implications, which include (1) bonding social capital, (2) bridging social capital and (3) linking social capital.

Bonding social capital denotes ties between people in similar situations, such as immediate family. Close friends neighbors (Woolcock, 2001: 13-14). Bonding is horizontal, among equals within a community whereas bridging is vertical between communities. Bonding social capital is localized and it is found among people who live in the same or adjacent communities (Wallis, 1998).

On the other hand, bridging social capital encompasses more distant ties of like persons, such as loose friendships and workmates (Woolcock, 2001: 13-14). bridging social capital refers to that social capital, which extends to individuals and organizations that are more removed and bridging social capital of trick trust (Wallis, 1998;).

Linking social capital reaches out to unlike people in dissimilar situations, such as those who are entirely outside of the communities, thus enabling members to leverage a far wider range of resources than are available in the community (Woolcock, 2001:13-14).

Putnam did not really concern about licking social capital nor did he come to grips with the implications of different forms of social capital rather he opines that “different combinations of the tree types of social capital will produce different outcomes (Field, 2003, 42). Putnam looked in to whether social capital is bonding (or exclusive) and /or bridging (or inclusive). Putnam suggested that the former might be more inward looking and have a tendency to reinforce exclusive identities and homogeneous groups. The later more outward looking and encompass people across different social divides (Putnam, 2000: 22). Bonding capital is good for under girding specific reciprocity and mobilizing solidarity. Bringing networks, by contrast, are better for linkage to external assets and for information diffusion. Moreover, bridging social capital can generate broader identities and reciprocity, whereas bonding social capital bolster our narrower selves. Bonding social capital constitutes one kind of sociological superglue, whereas bridging social capital provides a sociological (Putnam, 2000:2-23).

Bourdieu rejects the ordinary and purely economic meaning of the word capital. He adds to it the notion of social, cultural and symbolic capital as avenues through

Most generally symbolic capital has been defined as a sense of honor, reputation, dignity, prestige or power. Cultural capital itself symbolic refers to such relationships as are embedded in social and kin groupings, ones educational and professional qualifications and the like. On the other hand individual as a member of society and social capital as a resource derived from social connections and links. And all these social connections together creates network. So according to Bourdieu, there are four different power tools playing important role in society. These are:
1. Economic Capital: money, property etc.
2. Social Capital: connections, origin, affiliation and links etc.
3. Cultural capital: education, language, knowledge etc.
4. Symbolic capital: honor, prestige, reputation etc.

The other important distinction of social capital, developed by Norman Uphoff and Wijayaratna (2000) spans the range from structure manifestations of social capital to cognitive ones ( Grootaert and Van Bastelaer, 2002a) Structural social capital facilitates mutually beneficial collective action through established role and social networks supplemented by rules, procedures and precedents ( Hitt et. al., 2002) cognitive social capital , which includes shared norms , values attitudes and believes , people towards mutually beneficial collective action ( Krishma and Uphoff, 2002). Cognitive and structural forms of social capital are commonly connected and mutually reinforcing ( Uphoff, and Wijayaratna, 2000).

However, social capital is an abstract resource of connection of affiliation. Social capital is all about who you know (Smith 2001:137). Social capital focuses on social ties. Social ties are social relationship expressed through friendship, kinship, and common interest. With this network of relationship people can mobilize social capital for their own need and advantages. According to Fukuyama (1990), “social capital is an instantiated informal norm that promotes cooperation between two or more individuals. The norms that constitute social capital can range from a norm of reciprocity between two friends, all the way up to complex and elaborately articulated doctrines”.

Social capital is a powerful tool which explores the importance of social relations through the web of network of trust. According to Bourdieu, the network of relationships is the product of investment strategies, individual or collective, consciously or unconsciously aimed at establishing or reproducing social relationships that are directly usable in short or long term (1986). However, Bourdieu focuses on the strategies individuals employ as they invest in and capitalize on social, economic and cultural resources (Franklin: 2007). In an adverse situation, social capital play important role.

By using the concept of social capital and social network I have tried to explore how much the displaced people loss their social capital including network because of river bank erosion and its impact on their social, economic and political livelihood.

1.4.1.3 Reciprocity: Form of social capital and network: Social capital in the form of reciprocity occurs between households depending on mutual trust that derives from social ties. Reciprocity is the informal exchange between the people or household of a community in terms of goods, labor, money and help etc. According to Kottack, reciprocity is exchange between social equals, who are normally related by kinship, marriage, or another close personal tie. There are three types of reciprocity. Such as:

1. Generalized reciprocity: the purest form of reciprocit7y in which someone gives to another person and expects nothing concrete or immediate in return.
2. Balanced reciprocity: in which the giver expects something in return.
3.Negative reciprocity: in which giver expects something more in return and try to get something for as little as possible, even if it means being cagey or deceitful or cheating.

Generalized and balanced reciprocity are based on trust and a social tie (Kottack,P., Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity, 10th edit, p: 362-364). Reciprocity is known as golden rules operate through mutual goodwill between people, most open provides multiple benefits. Norms of reciprocity is a powerful tool that represents collectivity within the simple exchange between people. It is a process that represents social action. From the analysis of this social action we can understand such power and strength of social network which displaced people have lost due to river bank erosion.

1.4.1.4 Capability Deprivation: Scope and Freedom within the Web of Social Capital
We need to understand the relation between to human being and socio-environmental condition in terms of web of social network. This relationship depends on ‘structure of ownership’ Amartya Sen defined this relationship as ‘entitlement relationship’ which is according to Sen ‘one set of ownership through certain rules of legitimacy’. And this process depends on people’s ability or inability to establish entitlement over resources on the basis of socio-environmental condition. Now a day, vulnerability and livelihood strategy from anthropological perspective focuses on “household’s ability to cope with shocks to living standards by incorporating measure of investment in human capital (health, education) , physical investments(housing , equipment, land), social capital and claims on other asset(such as friendship and kinship network), stores(food, money or valuables such as jeweler), as well as labor(Moser,1998; Bond and Mukherjee, 2001: cited in Falkigham and Namazie; 2001). People’s vulnerability due to river erosion in a relative way can create poverty like situation which also includes societal inequality, deprivation, and exploitation in accessing livelihood outcomes.

Thus researcher has used human capability deprivation approach to understand the context of displaced people of riverbank erosion area to explore their scope and freedom to cope with an adverse situation due to loss of social capital created by river bank erosion. Researcher has tried to examine displaced people capability to access public services, common property resource, assets, employment opportunities, education, health and other options to maintain their day to day life by using or creating new network of social capital. And from Sen’s view, this capability of people depends on freedom, autonomy and dignity. However, which degree of freedom, autonomy and dignity the displaced people of riverbank erosion prone area holds to maintain their way of life within the connections of social capital and network.

1.4.2 Conceptual Framework
In this study, researcher has used some concepts regarding this study. These concepts are given below:
1.4.2.1 Social Network
In general, Social Network refers to the sites of social communication. For example: Face book, and twitter etc. But in this research, it has been referred as an informal relationship among persons, individuals and groups.
1.4.2.2 Safety Net
Safety net is something that provides security against misfortune or difficulty which is taken by government or non-government organizations. Safety nets are part of a broader poverty reduction strategy interacting with and working alongside of social insurance; health, education and financial services; the provision of utilities and roads; and other policies aimed at reducing poverty and managing risk.

According to World Bank, Social safety nets or socio-economic safety nets are non- contributing transfer programs seeking to prevent the poor or those vulnerable to shocks and poverty from falling below a certain poverty level. Safety net program can be provided by the public sectors (the state and aid donors) or by the private sectors (NGOs, private firm, charities etc) Safety net transfers include: * Cash transfers. * Food based programs such as supplementary feeding programs and food stamps, vouchers, and coupons. * In-kind transfers such as school supplies and uniform. * Conditional cash transfers. * Price subsidies for food, electricity or public transport. * Public work.

1.4.2.3 Displaced People
Displacement refers the forced migration of people by natural disasters. The International Organization for Migration defines forced migration as any person who migrates to escape persecution, conflict, repression, natural and human-made disasters, ecological degradation, or other situations that endanger their lives, freedom or livelihood. According to IDMC (2011), internally displaced persons are “persons or groups who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situation of generalized violence, violations of human rights, or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized state border”. Specifically, for this research, by displaced people researcher has been referred such people who have displaced due to River Bank Erosion.

1.4.2.4 River Bank Erosion
Erosion is the process by which soil and rock are removed from the Earth's surface by exogenesis processes such as wind or water flow, and then transported and deposited in other locations. In general sense, river bank erosion means the breaking down or carrying away the bank of the river by the river itself. In our country’s perspective – when rivers enter mature stage, (as in the case with three mighty rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna of Bangladesh) they become sluggish and meander or braid. These oscillations of rivers cause massive river bank erosion (K.Nizamuddin, et al, 2001).

1.4.2.5 Rich Group
Rich groups are those households which have plane tin built house, solar and potential high income.

1.4.2.6 Moderately Solvent Group
Moderately solvent groups are those households which have tin built house and sufficient income.

1.4.2.7 Marginal Group
Marginal groups are those households which have local materials made house and no sustainable income source.

1.5 Statement of the problem
Increasing river bank erosion has already created a desert like situation in the coastal areas of Bangladesh. Bhola, the island district of Bangladesh, is more affected by riverbank erosion. At presnt Monpura upazila of Bhola district is more vulnerable to riverbank erosion, which is encircled by Meghna River. So people of this village are facing difficulties to maintain their livelihood by losing their social capital and network due to river erosion (Monpura Upazila Land Office).
In this study, research problem was “Loss of Social Capital, Network and Role of Safety net of the displaced people by River Bank Erosion”. In previous studies, the researchers studied about the role of social capital to meet any crisis and about the impact of river bank erosion on livelihood. But no studies studied on the loss of social capital and network due to river bank erosion. So in this study, my subject area is to measure the loss of social capital and network, to explore the changing situation (the impact of losing social capital and network on social, economic and political livelihood) that displaced people face due to loss of social capital including network by RBE, to know how do they create new social capital and network and to assess the role of safety net programs to mitigate present situation. In this study, my concern is that, my study area’s people are more prone to river bank erosion and that’s why displaced people loss their social capital and network. A problem is that, displaced people loss their social capital and network because of river bank erosion and that’s why it affects on their social economic and political life.

Burt (1992:9) finds that social capital grow in “friends, colleagues and more general contacts through which people receive opportunities to use their financial and human capital”. According to Brehm and Rehn (1997:999), social capital forms through “the web of cooperation relationships between citizens that facilitates resolution of collective action problems”. Samson Kassahun(2010) tries to address “whether and how can social capital determine the community development in the poor urban localities”. Grootaert and Bastelaer (2002) cite that “social capital is an important tool for sustainable development from multidisciplinary perspective. Nahapiet and Ghoshal (1998:243) describe social capital as “the sum of the actual and potential resources embedded within, available through, and deprived from the network of relationships possessed by an individual or social unit. Social capital thus comprises both the network and the assets that may be mobilized through that network”.

In this body of evidences/literatures described the social capital as an important tool of development and also described the role of social capital to meet or mitigate crisis especially nature caused crisis. But these literatures do not describe about the loss of social capital including network due to river bank erosion, its impact on social, economic and political livelihood and role of safety net to meet present crisis; that is the missing of this body of evidence. This study area’s people fall on livelihood struggle by losing their social capital and network because of river erosion. So, it is needed to explore about their life struggle, condition of social capital, system of adaptation by creating new social capital and the role of safety net in this context.

In this study, 1st specific objective is to measure the loss of social capital and network due to river erosion. Since social capital is more important tool in river bank erosion prone areas, researcher’s approach of this objective is to discover the loss of social capital and network that displaced people loss due to river bank erosion. 2nd and 3rd specific objectives are to explore the changing situation (impact on social, economic and political livelihood) that displaced people face due to loss of social capital and network by river bank erosion and how do displaced people create new social capital including network. Researcher’s approach of these objectives is to investigate about their life struggle and their adaptation strategies by creating new social capital and network. And 4th specific objective is to assess the role of safety net to mitigate present situation. The approach of this objective is to assess about government and non government organization safety net program to mitigate present situation. For this reason the present study have focused on the loss of social capital because of river bank erosion, its impact on social, economic and political livelihood, how do they create new social capital and the role of safety net to meet present situation from anthropological point of view.

1.6 Rationale of the study
There are many reasons which justify the undertaking of the study. The field related to socio-economic impact of losing social capital and network due to river bank erosion is almost unknown in the domain of anthropology and in the context of Bangladesh. Though losing social capital or network due to river bank erosion is a natural concern but it affects the lifestyle of people. Marginal people of riverbank erosion prone area are most vulnerable to loss social capital including network (field observation). Bhola, the island district of Bangladesh, is more economically depressed and RBE prone Areas of the country (Climate Change: River Erosion in Bangladesh, 2000, CEGIS, Coast Trust, Dhaka, Bangladesh). Bhola, in which, Monpura is more vulnerable to RBE at present.

That’s why the people of Andirpar village of Monpura upazila in Bhola district loss their social capital and network and in this context the role of safety net is the most important to meet crisis. Based on empirical findings, the study has recommended strategies and measures that may be taken up for addressing the problems faced by the affected households and communities due to loss of social capital and network caused by river bank erosion. So, in above context, the present study is more rationale.

1.7 Scope and limitation of the research
1.7.1 Scope
The study has attempted to understand the loss of social capital and network of the displaced people under the study formed by river bank erosion. I tried to draw vulnerable features of the loss of social capital affected people and its impacts on their socio- economic livelihood and the way they create new social capital and the role of safety net to mitigate the crisis created by river bank erosion from anthropological insights to represent the real people in real situation. River bank erosion is a major problem of coastal region of Bangladesh. But according to the nature of anthropological research, problems cannot be generalized. The impact may vary according to specific ecological and cultural variation of areas. That’s why the study aims to focus on the loss of social capital, network and the role of safety net in the context of river bank erosion of the study area. The purpose of anthropological research is the well- being of human, thus the study is important as it is on a miserably affected area. The people of the study area are suffering a lot due to loss of social capital and network caused by river bank erosion. With this impact of several climate changes like frequent cyclone and storm surge, unpredictable rain, increasing temperature the situation is become susceptible day by day. So an in-depth study on this issue is essential. Moreover, research on loss of social capital, network and safety net from natural science is quite frequent/ present. But the southeastern coastal people of Bangladesh are the worst victim of this problem. As loss of social capital and network caused by river erosion affects the lifestyle of people thus it is necessary to understand the situation from anthropological perspective.

1.7.2 Limitations
With scope, the study also has some imitation in case of time and flexible nature of human being. Frequent field visit will not be done because of the remote location of the study area and shortage of time. As a researcher I will try my best for collecting the representative information’s from the study area. Human perception is always flexible and changing. So in some case it will be difficult to gather accurate information. In these cases, cross- checking of information will be done frequently for ensuring the validity of the data.

1.8 Literature Review
Literature review is the important part of any research. Although displaced people’s due to river bank erosion life styles have been described in various sort of literature, in relation with the socio-economic livelihood strategies of them, considerable scientific works on loss of social capital including network of displaced people by river bank erosion, its impact on their social, economic, & political livelihood and role of safety net to mitigate present crisis caused by loss of social capital including network due to RBE are really inadequate. However, the flowing paragraphs under background of the study identify some existing literature on social capital and network in the context of river bank erosion.

K. M. Ilahi (1991), in his book Riverbank Erosion, Flood Hazard and population Displacement in Bangladesh, has discussed about the socio-economic reaction of people after flooding. He also saw the river erosion and rehabilitation as social problem. In this book, he has also discussed about the responses to river bank erosion and its catastrophic effects and the assistance to the displaces at the individual, local and national levels.

Chowdhury R. Abrar and S. Nurullah Azad (2004), in their book Coping with Displacement: Riverbank Erosion in North-West Bangladesh, have basically dealt with the relationship between settlers and host community. According to their findings relationship between the settlers and host community generally do not get to a good start. Reasons being:

* additional burden on local resources, * not knowing enough about each other, * legacy of earlier clashes between the locals and previous groups of settlers, and * Unhygienic sanitation practice in the open by settlers.

These resultant crises take different forms: * Conflict over grazing of livestock and destruction of crops, * Theft of poultry of settler’s members of the host community, * Unhealthy competition to secure support and services of the local government or NGOs.
In an edited book Internal Displacement of South Asia (2005), Meghna Guhathakurta and Suraiya Begum. Chap. in Bangladesh: Displaced and Dispossessed, eds. Banerjee, P., Chaudhury, S.B.R., and Das, S. K. have described about 5 categories depict the multifaceted nature of internal displacement taking place within Bangladesh today. Such as: * Internal Displacement by River Erosion * Internal Displacement due to Armed Conflict * Systematic Internal Displacement in a Majoritarian Democracy: Post-Election Violence and Religious Minorities * Economic Displacement in a Globalizing World: Shrimp Cultivation * Displacement due to Forced Eviction by the State
Abdul Baqee (1998) has written book titled Peopling in the Land of Allah Jaane. In this book he has explored the depicting adjustment and resettlement strategies of the char land’s people. He argues that the prevalence of dispute arising out of the settlement process in chars is greater where power is polarized in more than one person or group than where power is concentrated in only one gushti (members of a group based on kinship). In this book, he has also discussed about three responses in general of char- lands dwellers. Such as: * Structural: those activities or practices intended to reduce damage to dwelling structures and household goods, * Agricultural: activities carried out for reducing and/or recovering crops and agricultural losses, and * Human: measures taken to gear up safety of the people.

A.T.M. Nurul Amin (1991), in his article Settlement Strategy for Riverbank Erosion Displaces in Bangladesh: A Human Resource Development Approach, has used secondary data on settlement strategies for riverbank erosion displacement and adopted ‘human resource development approach’ in dealing with the settlement strategy for the displaces in Bangladesh. In this article, he has also examined critically the existing resettlement and land distribution policies in Bangladesh and recommending for developing more effective short and long term resettlement and development strategies in order to provide the displaces with assistance and relief during the onslaught of erosion and to resettle them in a community living.

At the theoretical level, Kazi Sadrul Hoque, Ishrat Shamim and A.H.M. Zehadul Karim(1990), in their second and revised edition: Environmental Issues and Natural Resource Management in Bangladesh (December, 1992), outlined important environmental issues in context to Bangladesh. In this study, the researchers identified 36 important environmental research studies and also at the same, provided a brief discussion on them, which has been used as a guideline for the future researchers in context to environment. Among the various environmental issues, the research specified the erosion as an important aspect of environmental degradation in Bangladesh.

Atiur Rahman (1986), in his article titled “Impact of Riverbank Erosion: Survival Strategies of Displaces” has identified the possible economic strategies of the displaces in Bangladesh by conducting a short field survey in Bhuapur Thana of Tangail District and Hizla Thana of Barisal District. In this article, he has also dealt with the displacees’ economic activities, chronic poverty, marginalization, and pauperization.

S.M.N. Alam (1990), work on “Socio-economic and Political Dynamics of Charland Settlement and Its Implications for Poverty” dealt with the socio-economic and political dynamics of char-land settlement. He has also discussed about the depicting adjustment and resettlement strategies of the displacees.

M.M. Rashid (2013), in his article Lives and Livelihoods of Riverbank Erosion Displacees in Bangladesh: Need for Protection framework has portrayed lives and livelihoods scenario of riverbank eroded internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Bangladesh. Displaced persons living on Riverbanks in Bangladesh, face many internal and external barriers before, during and after displacement. In this article, he has shown that, majority of the IDPs living on the riverbank are deprived of fundamental rights, including but not limited to, access to land, housing, income, education, health and sanitation.

In an edited book “Understanding and Measuring Social Capital: A Multidisciplinary Tool for Practitioners” the authors Grootaert and Bastelaer (2002) have said that, social capital is an important tool for sustainable development from multidisciplinary perspective, including anthropology. Institution, networks, norms and value of a society play important role in the success of development interventions. The authors of this book critically evaluate the role of social interaction, trust and reciprocity from diversified geographical and sect oral location. This book focuses on qualitative and quantitative analysis of social capital and also defines social capital from community level, personal level, role of institution and from three different level of society that is macro, meso and micro. This edited book also includes case study on the success of agricultural extension in Mali on the basis of relationship of trust. And in another case study, this book also describes the role of social capital in the rehabilitation of coal mining area in the Indian state of Orissa. In this case authors found that mutual trust is important thing in this area; yet social capital provide a mixture of positive and negative result for the rehabilitation in the area.

Samson Kassahun (2010), in his article “Social Capital as a Catalyst for Community Development: A Case of Poor Localities in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia” has tried to address ‘whether and how can social capital can determine the community development in the poor urban localities. The study investigated social capital in selected poor-neighborhoods in Addis Ababa and found that, residents of poor localities respond to adverse ecological conditions through actions intended to alleviate community problems. The study also identified that, poor localities have strong personal networks. However, social capital is a powerful tool for community development.

Cynthia Werner (1998), in her article “Houshold Network and Security of Indebtedness in Rural Kazakstan” (Central Asia Survey) has found that, though soviet system indicates equitable means for distribution but in particular state cannot provide adequate support to them. Thus they rely on extensive social network and frequently used personal connection for obtaining goods and services. In post Soviet Kazakstan, development of transitional commerce and privatization of certain sector increased the availability of various goods and services. But social network play very important role in their daily survival as certain goods are less accessible. Werner mention that, in post –Soviet Kazakstan, access to certain goods and services requires personal connections thus networking activities are important for the daily survival which often maintained through the reciprocal exchange of gifts and hospitality. She found that, in post-post Soviet period salary decreased and many people have been forced to sell their livestock for cash. Thus some activities contributed for their overall well-being. She also found that, Kazak maintains this network by granting personal favors, presenting gifts, hosting dinners and feasts and supplying voluntary labors on the basis of expectation of indebtedness. This indebtedness is a kind of insurance for individual and households. However, that was also a situation of crisis where Werner found the importance of social capital and household network.

Above-mentioned studies describe the impact of displacement and river bank erosion on affected people’s socio-economic livelihoods. It also discusses the resettlement patterns, livelihood and adaptation strategies, and political dynamic of char-land settlement of the displaced people, in one hand. And the other hand, above literature’s review describes the social capital as an important tool of development and also describes the role of social capital to meet or mitigate crisis especially nature caused crisis. But these literatures do not describe about the loss of social capital including network due to river bank erosion, its impact on social, economic and political livelihood and role of safety net to meet present crisis; that is the missing of this body of evidence. The study area’s people fall on livelihood struggle by losing their social capital and network because of river bank erosion. So, it is needed to discover their life struggle, condition of social capital, system of adaptation by creating new social capital and the role of safety net in this context.

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