... DNA is made of chemical building blocks called nucleotides. These building blocks (nucleotides) are made of phosphate, sugar and one of four types of nitrogen bases. The four types of nitrogen bases found in nucleotides are: adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine. These nucleotides are either purine or pyrimidine based, called nucleotide subunits. The purine base are adenine and guanine. The pyrimidine based are thymine and cytosine. The DNA strand is formed when the nucleotides are linked into chains, with the phosphate and sugar group alternating. As you can see in the diagram above, adenine bonds with thymine and guanine bonds with cytosine. These bonds take place by hydrogen bonding. DNA Replication Fork Topoisomerases are enzymes that regulate the overwinding or underwinding of DNA, shown as the yellow wire above. Topoisomerases catalyze and guide the unknotting and unkinking of DNA. The double-helical configuration that DNA strands naturally reside makes them difficult to separate, so they must be separated by helicase enzymes. Helicase separates the strands of a DNA double helix by using the energy from ATP hydrolysis so replication can begin. The replication bubble allows replication to take place in 2 directions. Primase is an enzyme that synthesizes short RNA sequences called primers. These primers are the starting point for DNA synthesis at the 3’ end of new strands. Primers must be synthesized by primase before DNA replication can occur. The enzymes that synthesize...
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...Tobacco mosaic virus: nucleic acid strand winds through a cylinder of coat-protein subunits 9.2 The Covalent Structure of Polynucleotides Nucleotides: monomers of nucleic acids 1. Nitrogenous base 2. Sugar 3. Phosphoric acid residue Order of nucleic acids of DNA contains the information necessary to produce the correct amino acid sequence in the cell’s proteins What are the structures and components of the nucleotides? Nucleic acid bases (nucleobases): one or two-ring nitrogenous aromatic compound - Pyrimidines – single-ring aromatic compounds Cytosine – DNA & RNA Thymine – substitute for Uracil in DNA (sometimes in RNA) Uracil – RNA only - Purines – double-ring aromatic compounds Adenine – DNA & RNA Guanine – DNA & RNA Methylation can modify bases Nucleoside - base + sugar covalently bonded - lacks phosphate group - base forms a glycosidic linkage with sugar Ribonucleoside: β-D-ribose Deoxyribonucleoside: β-D-deoxyribose The glycosidic linkage is from C-1’ carbon of the sugar to the N-1 nitrogen of pyrimidines or N-9 of purines The numbers of the sugars are primed The sugar is linked to a nitrogen in both cases (N-glycosidic bond) Nucleotide - Phosphoric acid is esterified to one of the hydroxyl groups of the sugar portion of a nucleoside - Named for the parent nucleoside; suffix –monophosphate - Position...
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...monomers and polymers that are called nucleotides. These two chains in particular which composes of DNA strain are then formed by the grouping of the nucleotides into the polynucleotides. The nucleotide is made up of a nitrogenous base, of sugar and of a phosphate group. In the DNA case, there are four nucleotides that are found along the DNA chain, the four nucleotides ate (T) thyme, (A) adenine, (C) cytosine, and (G) guanine. These four nucleotides are joined together by their covalent bonds, or more specific, the phosphates and the sugar which composes the sugar/phosphate back bone of the polynucleotide. 2. How does an organism’s genotype determine its phenotype? The genotype of an organism is the genetic makeup of that organism, it is the nucleotide bases in the organism’s DNA. The phenotype is considered the physical traits of the organism which comes from the actions of the broad variety of proteins. The body of an organism is made up by the structural proteins and the metabolic activities are catalyzed by the enzymes. The synthesis of the proteins is specified by the DNA. However, a protein is not directly built by a gene, but dispatches the instructions to do so in the form of the RNA, which in turn programs the synthesis of the protein. 3. Describe each stage of the flow of information starting with DNA and ending with a trait. DNA and RNA are long linear polymers that carry information in a form that can be passed from one generation...
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...out of about three billion chemical bases that store DNA’s coded information; over 99% of these bases have been found to be consistent in all people. The sequence of the bases is extremely important because the order that they are found in, reveals the information necessary and accessible for creating and upholding an organism. A simple way to comprehend this explanation is that DNA works in similar ways to alphabet letters; letters are put in certain orders to form a word or sentence and if they were to be mixed up, they would have a much different meaning. DNA is composed of two long strands that form a spiral made up of nucleotides called a double helix. The nucleotides that form this double helix are composed of a base attached to a sugar, and phosphate. The bases found in the double helix pair up with each other, T with A and G with...
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...causes your blood sugar levels to be higher than normal. This can also be called hyperglycemia. Type 2 diabetes is when your body doesn’t produce enough insulin to keep up with the blood sugar levels or your body isn’t responsive to insulin. This is called insulin resistant. Insulin is a hormone produced in the pancreas after you eat to bring blood sugar levels down to normal through converting the extra glucose into glycogen in the liver and muscle cells. What happens after you eat sugary food? As blood sugars rise, the pancreas produces the hormone insulin. The blood with the insulin and glucose travel to the liver, where the insulin stimulates the liver to produce enzymes such as glycogen...
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...Functions of Potassium in Plants P When water supply is short, K is pumped out of the guard cells. The pores close tightly to prevent loss of water and minimize drought stress to the plant. If K supply is inadequate, the stomates become sluggish – slow to respond – and water vapor is lost. Closure may take hours rather than Potassium (K) increases Enzyme Activation minutes and is incomplete. crop yield and improves Enzymes serve as cataAs a result, plants with an quality. It is required for lysts for chemical reactions, insufficient supply of K are numerous plant growth being utilized but not conmuch more susceptible to processes. sumed in the process. They water stress. bring together other molecules in such a way Accumulation of K in plant roots prothat the chemical reaction can take place. duces a gradient of osmotic pressure that Potassium “activates” at least 60 different draws water into the roots. Plants deficient in enzymes involved in plant growth. The K K are thus less able to absorb water and are changes the physical shape of the enzyme more subject to stress when water is in short molecule, exposing the appropriate chemical- supply. ly active sites for reaction. Potassium also neutralizes various organic anions and other Photosynthesis compounds within the plant, helping to stabiThe role of K in photosynthesis is comlize pH between 7 and 8...optimum for most plex. The activation of enzymes by K and its enzyme reactions. involvement...
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...polynucleotide chains. Because these two chains are held together by hydrogen bonding between the bases on the different strands, all the bases are on the inside of the double helix, and the sugar-phosphate backbones are on the outside. In each case, a bulkier two ring base is paired with a single-ring base; A always pairs with T, and G with C. In this arrangement, each base pair is similar width, thus holding the sugar-phosphate backbones an equal distance apart along the DNA molecule. To maximize the efficiency of base-pair packing, the two sugar-phosphate backbones wind around each other to form a double helix, with one complete turn every ten base pairs. 2. How does an organism’s genotype determine its phenotype? An organism’s genotype, its genetic makeup, is the sequence of nucleotide bases in its DNA. The phenotype, the organism’s physical traits, arises from the actions of a wide variety of proteins. Structural proteins help make up the body of an organism, and enzymes catalyze its metabolic activities. DNA specifies the synthesis of proteins. However, a gene does not build a protein directly, but rather dispatches instructions in the form of RNA, which in turn programs protein synthesis. This molecular chain of command is from DNA in the nucleus to RNA to protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. The two main stages are transcription, the transfer of genetic information from DNA into an RNA molecule, and translation, the transfer of the information from RNA into...
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...a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms. | anabolic steroid | A synthetic variant of the male hormone testosterone that mimics some of its effects. | carbohydrate | Member of the class of biological molecules consisting of simple single-monomer sugars (monosaccharides), two-monomer sugars (disaccharides), and other multiunit sugars (polysaccharides). | carbon skeleton | The chain of carbon atoms that forms the structural backbone of an organic molecule. | carbonyl group | In an organic molecule, a functional group consisting of a carbon atom linked by a double bond to an oxygen atom. | carboxyl group | In an organic molecule, a functional group consisting of an oxygen atom double-bonded to a carbon atom that is also bonded to a hydroxyl group. | carboxylic acid | An organic compound containing a carboxyl group. | cellulose | A large polysaccharide composed of many glucose monomers linked into cable-like fibrils that provide structural support in plant cell walls. | chitin | A structural polysaccharide found in many fungal cell walls and in the exoskeletons of arthropods. | cholesterol | A steroid that is an important component of animal cell membranes and that acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other steroids such as hormones. | dehydration reaction | A chemical process in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other with the removal of a water molecule. Also called condensation. | denaturation | A...
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...of subunits called nucleotides, each attached to the one immediately about it and the one immediately below it to form a long chain. Each nucleotide contains a five-carbon sugar. The five-carbon sugar contains a five-membered ring with an oxygen atom as one of the vertices. Each nucleotide also features a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing base; these bases are typically represented by adenine, cytosine, thymine, and guanine. The base is attached to carbon 1 of the sugar, biologist denote each of the carbons in the sugar using a number from 1 through 5, where 1 represents the carbon to which the base is attached. 2. How does an organism’s genotype determine its phenotype? The genotype of an organism is the sum total of all the genes that it inherits. It is sort of like a blue print that is designed to serve as a guide in the development of the organism, so that it will become the same kind of creature as the parent or parents that it came from. The phenotype, the organism’s physical trait arises from the actions of a wide variety of proteins. For example structural proteins help make up the body of an organism, and enzymes catalyze its metabolic activity. A gene does not build a protein directly, but rather dispatched instructions in the form of RNA, which in turn programs protein synthesis. The molecular chain of command is from DNA in the nucleus to RNA to protein in the cytoplasm. 3. Describe each stage of the flow of information starting...
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...polymers that carry information in a form that can be passed from one generation to the next. • DNA and RNA are composed of series of linked nucleotides What is a nucleotide? • It is composed of a sugar, a base and a phosphate Nucleotide = sugar + base + phosphate Nucleoside = sugar + base 3 Composition of a gene What are the bases? (A) (G) (C) (U) (T) 4 Difference between DNA and RNA RNA and DNA Differ in the Sugar Component and One of the Bases 2’ carbon atom of the sugar lacks the oxygen atom in DNA • In RNA : Uracil (U) • In DNA : Thymine (T) In RNA : adenosine, guanosine, cytidine, and uridine In DNA : deoxyadenosine, deoxyguanosine, deoxycytidine, and thymidine 5 Nucleic acid: an information carrier What is the form of information? • Sequence of bases along a nucleic acid chain • DNA, RNA molecules are linear polymers built up from similar units connected end to end • Each unit consists of three components: a sugar, a phosphate, and a base 6 Gene : a portion of nucleic acid What is gene? • A gene is the basic unit of heredity in a living organism. In a cell, gene is a portion of DNA and RNA which define a protein or RNA. What is the path of getting protein from DNA? • DNA is not the direct template for protein synthesis (Central dogma of molecular biology) 7 Backbones of DNA and RNA •...
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...anabolic potential (muscle growth). The mTOR pathway is the "trigger" that signals the very genesis of muscle protein synthesis. Monster Amino is able to achieve the anabolic 8:1:1 BCAA ratio by combining PepForm Leucine Peptides, and free-form L-Leucine, L-Isoleucine and L-Valine to help promote maximum muscle-building performance. Monster Amino offers full label transparency - No proprietary blends. With Monster Amino, you know exactly how much of each ingredient you are receiving per serving....
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...SCIE206-1303B-07 UNIT 2 IP 2 ‘Photosynthesis and Respiration’ Running Head: Photosynthesis and Respiration 1 Photosynthesis and Respiration The process in which carbon dioxide is transformed into organic compounds from sunlight is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis, a natural process, offers every aerobic being on earth oxygen and also assists in maintaining a natural percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere (Cloud, David 2011). Human beings would not exist without this process. Photosynthesis also occurs in algae, plants, and certain bacteria. In contrast, respiration takes glucose (sugar), along with other organic compounds oxidizing them to develop carbon dioxide. Respiration is the metabolic reaction in organic cells, biochemical energy into adenosine triphosphate/ATP. Each cycle depends on the other, in order for the ‘complete cycle’ to transpire. When it comes to receiving energy from the foods we eat, photosynthesis stores the energy and respiration releases it. Both cycles are important to ensure continuous life on earth. Photosynthesis and respiration are connected between plants and animals based on the reactants and products of both pathways by the usage of autotrophs and heterotrophs. An autotroph are organisms the have the ability to manufacture their own food (“Autotroph vs. Heterotroph” n.d.). Heterotroph organisms are essential in respiration and are not an...
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...1. Introduction to oxidative phosphorylation for A-level students The mitochondria of animal cells can use energy made available in metabolic reactions, such as those involved in the oxidation of sugars and fats, to make ATP. The process is known as "oxidative phosphorylation"; energy released by oxidation is used to drive the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP. 2. The location of the components of oxidative phosphorylation The location of the proteins and cofactors used in oxidative phosphorylation is important in the process (see Figure 1). NAD+ is reduced to NADH in the matrix of mitochondria by enzymes of the Krebs cycle. The respiratory chain proteins and the ATP synthase enzyme are located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. 3. The chemiosmotic theory The chemiosmotic theory was developed by the British biochemist, Peter Mitchell, to explain the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria (and photophosphorylation in chloroplasts). He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978. The processes of oxidative phosphorylation are summarised in Figure 2. NADH produced in the Krebs cycle passes electrons to the respiratory chain and becomes re-oxidized to NAD+. The electrons are transported down the chain to oxygen releasing energy (think of burning sugar or fat); the reduction of oxygen forms water. Thus, oxygen is the terminal electron acceptor of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. The respiratory chain is shown by the red box in Figure 2. The...
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...Ch. 10: Photosynthesis (Ps) • Ps is the process that converts solar energy into chemical energy – Directly or indirectly, Ps nourishes almost the entire living world – Ps occurs in plants, algae, certain other protists, and some prokaryotes • Autotrophs sustain themselves without eating anything derived from other organisms – Autotrophs are the producers of the biosphere, producing organic molecules from CO2 and other inorganic molecules – Almost all plants are photoautotrophs, using the energy of sunlight to make organic molecules • Heterotrophs obtain their organic material from other organisms – Heterotrophs are the consumers of the biosphere – Almost all heterotrophs, including humans, depend on photoautotrophs for food (organic molecules) and O2 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Concept 10.1: Photosynthesis converts light energy to the chemical energy of food Ps stores energy in complex organic molecules, whereas cellular respiration releases it. • Chloroplasts are structurally similar to and likely evolved from photosynthetic bacteria – Their structural organization allows for the chemical reactions of Ps • Leaves are the major locations of Ps – Their green color is from chlorophyll, the green pigment within chloroplasts • Chloroplasts are found mainly in cells of the mesophyll, the interior tissue of the leaf – Each mesophyll cell contains 30–40 chloroplasts (see next slide’s figure) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • CO2 enters and O2 exits the...
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...monomers and polymers that are called nucleotides. These two chains in particular which composes of DNA strain are then formed by the grouping of the nucleotides into the polynucleotides. The nucleotide is made up of a nitrogenous base, of sugar and of a phosphate group. In the DNA case, there are four nucleotides that are found along the DNA chain, the four nucleotides ate (T) thyme, (A) adenine, (C) cytosine, and (G) guanine. These four nucleotides are joined together by their covalent bonds, or more specific, the phosphates and the sugar which composes the sugar/phosphate back bone of the polynucleotide. 2. How does an organism’s genotype determine its phenotype? The genotype of an organism is the genetic makeup of that organism, it is the nucleotide bases in the organism’s DNA. The phenotype is considered the physical traits of the organism which comes from the actions of the broad variety of proteins. The body of an organism is made up by the structural proteins and the metabolic activities are catalyzed by the enzymes. The synthesis of the proteins is specified by the DNA. However, a protein is not directly built by a gene, but dispatches the instructions to do so in the form of the RNA, which in turn programs the synthesis of the protein. 3. Describe each stage of the flow of information starting with DNA and ending with a trait. In eukaryotic cells, transcription, the stage from DNA to RNA, occurs in the nucleus, and then RNA is processed before...
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